The Effect of Level-Marked Tasks on Students’ Mathematics Self-Efficacy and Persistence—Investigating a Tiered Activity
Keywords:
self-efficacy, persistence, differentiated instruction, mathematics education, level of difficulty, tiered activity
Abstract
In school mathematics, tiering tasks according to students’ readiness levels is a common approach to adapting content to address students’ varying abilities. To distinguish between different tiers, the tasks are commonly marked by their level of difficulty, as in so called level-marked tasks – a strategy used in differentiated instruction to help students gain mastery and improve performance. However, less is known about whether and to what extent the marking of the tasks works as intended. Regarded as a significant predictor of students’ performance in mathematics, the level marking of mathematics tasks and their effects on students’ self-efficacy and persistence were investigated. The online survey part of an experimental design was used to collect data from 436 lower secondary students in Norway. Independent sample t-tests and Mann–Whitney U tests revealed that, when students across groups were given the same mathematics tasks with and without level markings, tasks marked as difficult reduced both students’ mathematics self-efficacy and their persistence, even for students with high baseline self-efficacy. Although more research is needed to fully understand how the level markings of mathematics tasks affect students’ self-efficacy and persistence, the reported results have implications for both mathematics teachers and textbook authors.
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References
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Bong, M., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really? Educational Psychology Review, 15(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021302408382
Borge, A. I. H. (2003). Psykologi og forskningsetikk: Kan deltagelse i forskningsprosjekt gi psykiske skader? [Psychology and research ethics: Can participation in a research project cause psychological damage?] I K. Ruyter (Ed.), Forskningetikk–Beskyttelse av enkeltpersoner og samfunn (pp. 93-107). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.
Brändström, A. (2005). Differentiated tasks in mathematics textbooks. An analysis of the levels of difficulty. [Unpublished licentiate thesis]. Luleå University of Technology.
Brown, I., & Inouye, D. K. (1978). Learned helplessness through modeling: The role of perceived similarity in competence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(8), 900-908. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.8.900
Butz, A. R., & Usher, E. L. (2015). Salient sources of early adolescents’ self-efficacy in two domains. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 42, 49-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.04.001
Chen, P., & Zimmerman, B. (2007). A cross-national comparison study on the accuracy of self-efficacy beliefs of middle-school mathematics students. The Journal of Experimental Education, 75(3), 221-244. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.75.3.221-244
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, A. K. (2018). Research methods in education. London: Routledge.
Collins, J. L. (1984). Self-efficacy and ability in achievement behavior [Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University].
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. California: Sage.
DiNapoli, J. (2023). Distinguishing between grit, persistence, and perseverance for learning mathematics with understanding. Education Sciences, 13(4), 402. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13040402
Grave, I., & Pepin, B. (2015). Teachers’ use of resources in and for mathematics teaching. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 20(3-4), 199-222.
Eriksen, E., Solomon, Y., Bjerke, A. H., Gray, J., & Kleve, B. (2022). Making decisions about attainment grouping in mathematics: Teacher agency and autonomy in Norway. Research Papers in Education, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2022.2135014
Hackett, G., and Betz, N. E. (1989). An Exploration of the Mathematics Self-Efficacy/Mathematics Performance Correspondence. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20(3), 261-273. https://doi.org/10.2307/749515
Herset, M., & El Ghami, M. (2022). The effect of level-marking mathematical tasks on students’ time spent on such tasks and correct solutions: An experimental study. Twelfth Congress of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education (CERME12), Feb 2022, Bozen-Bol, Italy.
Herset, M., El Ghami, M., & Bjerke, A. H. (2023). The effect of level-marked mathematics tasks on students’ self-efficacy: An experimental study. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116386
Jacobs, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (1984). Understanding persistence: An interface of control theory and self-efficacy theory. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 5(4), 333-347. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp0504_6
Joët, G., Usher, E. L., & Bressoux, P. (2011). Sources of self-efficacy: An investigation of elementary school students in France. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(3), 649. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024048
Kim, H. Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 38(1), 52-54. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52
Krauthausen, G. (2018). Natural differentiation – An approach to cope with heterogeneity. In G. Kaiser, H. Forgasz, M. Graven, A. Kuzniak, E. Simmt, & B. Xu (Hrsg.), Invited lectures from the 13th International Congress on Mathematical Education. ICME-13 Monographs. Springer Open. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72170-5_19.
Liu, Q., Liu, J., Cai, J., & Zhang, Z. (2020). The relationship between domain- and task-specific self-efficacy and mathematical problem posing: A large-scale study of eighth-grade students in China. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 105(3), 407-431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-020-09977-w
Luster, R. (2008). A quantitative study investigating the effects of whole-class and differentiated instruction on student achievement. [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University].
Lyman, R. D., Prentice‐Dunn, S., Wilson, D. R., & Bonfilio, S. A. (1984). The effect of success or failure on self-efficacy and task persistence of conduct‐disordered children. Psychology in the Schools, 21(4), 516-519. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(198410)21:4<516::AIDPITS2310210419>3.0.CO;2-O
Miele, D. B., Browman, A. S., Shen, C., Vasilyeva, M. & Tyumeneva, Y. A. (2022). Domain-general and math-specific self-perceptions of perseverance as predictors of behavioral math persistence. The Journal of Experimental Education, 90(3), 593-614. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2020.1799312
Montague, M., & Applegate, B. (2000). Middle school students’ perceptions, persistence, and performance in mathematical problem solving. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23(3), 215-227. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511165
Moyer, J. C., Robison, V., & Cai, J. (2018). Attitudes of high-school students taught using traditional and reform mathematics curricula in middle school: A retrospective analysis. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 98, 115-134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9809-4
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(1), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The concept of flow. In C. Snyder & S. Lopez (Ed.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 89-105). New York: Oxford University Press.
Óturai, G., Riener, C., & Martiny, S. E. (2023). Attitudes towards mathematics, achievement, and drop-out intentions among STEM and non-STEM students in Norway. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100230
Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543-478. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170653
Pajares, F., & Miller, M. D. (1995). Mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics performances: The need for specificity of assessment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(2), 190-198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.42.2.190
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pierce, R. L., & Adams, C. M. (2005). Using tiered lessons in mathematics. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 11(3), 144-149. https://doi.org/10.5951/MTMS.11.3.0144
Sasidharan, S., & Kareem, J. (2023). Mathematics self-efficacy, utility value and well-being among school students in India mediating role of student engagement. Investigations in Mathematics Learning, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/19477503.2023.2224652
Schunk, D. H. (1991). Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 207-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1991.9653133
Scott, B. E. (2012). The effectiveness of differentiated instruction in the elementary mathematics classroom [Doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana].
Sexton, T. L., & Tuckman, B. W. (1991). Self-beliefs and behavior: The role of self-efficacy and outcome expectation over time. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(7), 725-736. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90228-4
Shen, C., Miele, D. B., & Vasilyeva, M. (2016). The relation between college students’ academic mindsets and their persistence during math problem solving. Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 9(3), 38-56. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2016.0303
Skaalvik, E. M., Federici, R. A., & Klassen, R. M. (2015). Mathematics achievement and self-efficacy: Relations with motivation for mathematics. International Journal of Educational Research, 72, 129-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2015.06.008
Spielberg, Y., & Azaria, A. (2021). Revelation of task difficulty in AI-aided education. In 2021 IEEE 33rd International conference on tools with artificial intelligence (ICTAI) (pp. 1403-1408). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICTAI52525.2021.00223
Stein, M., & Burchartz, B. (2006). The invisible wall project: Reasoning and problem solving processes of primary and lower secondary students. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 8(1), 65-90. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327833mtl0801_4
Stevens, T., Olivárez Jr., A., & Hamman, D. (2006). The role of cognition, motivation, and emotion in explaining the mathematics achievement gap between Hispanic and White students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 28(2), 161-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986305286103
Street, K. E. S., Malmberg, L.-E., & Stylianides, G. J. (2017). Level, strength, and facet-specific self-efficacy in mathematics test performance. ZDM: Mathematics Education, 49(3), 379-395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0833-0
Street, K. E., Stylianides, G. J., & Malmberg, L. E. (2022). Differential relationships between mathematics self-efficacy and national test performance according to perceived task difficulty. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 29(3), 288-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2022.2095980
Suarez D. (2007). Differentiation by challenge: Using a tiered program of instruction in mathematics. In W. Powel & O. K. Powel (Eds.), Making the difference: Differentiation in international schools (pp. 199-227). Kuala Lumpur: EAF Press.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria: ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Differentiating instruction: Why bother? Middle Ground, 9(1), 12-14.
Usher, E. L., & Pajares, F. (2009). Sources of self-efficacy in mathematics: A validation study. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 89-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.09.002
West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues and applications (pp. 56-75). London: Sage.
Zakariya, Y. F. (2019). Study approaches in higher education mathematics: investigating the statistical behaviour of an instrument translated into Norwegian. Education sciences, 9(3), 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9030191
Zakariya, Y. F. (2021). Self-efficacy between previous and current mathematics performance of undergraduate students: An instrumental variable approach to exposing a causal relationship. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.556607
Zientek, L. R., Fong, C. J., & Phelps, J. M. (2019). Sources of self-efficacy of community college students enrolled in developmental mathematics. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 43(2), 183-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2017.1357071
Bal, A. P. (2016). The effect of the differentiated teaching approach in the algebraic learning field on students’ academic achievements. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 16(63), 185-204, https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2016.63.11
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117-148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide to the construction of self-efficacy scales. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (vol. 5, pp. 307-337). New York: Information Age.
Bong, M., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really? Educational Psychology Review, 15(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021302408382
Borge, A. I. H. (2003). Psykologi og forskningsetikk: Kan deltagelse i forskningsprosjekt gi psykiske skader? [Psychology and research ethics: Can participation in a research project cause psychological damage?] I K. Ruyter (Ed.), Forskningetikk–Beskyttelse av enkeltpersoner og samfunn (pp. 93-107). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.
Brändström, A. (2005). Differentiated tasks in mathematics textbooks. An analysis of the levels of difficulty. [Unpublished licentiate thesis]. Luleå University of Technology.
Brown, I., & Inouye, D. K. (1978). Learned helplessness through modeling: The role of perceived similarity in competence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(8), 900-908. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.8.900
Butz, A. R., & Usher, E. L. (2015). Salient sources of early adolescents’ self-efficacy in two domains. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 42, 49-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.04.001
Chen, P., & Zimmerman, B. (2007). A cross-national comparison study on the accuracy of self-efficacy beliefs of middle-school mathematics students. The Journal of Experimental Education, 75(3), 221-244. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.75.3.221-244
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, A. K. (2018). Research methods in education. London: Routledge.
Collins, J. L. (1984). Self-efficacy and ability in achievement behavior [Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University].
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. California: Sage.
DiNapoli, J. (2023). Distinguishing between grit, persistence, and perseverance for learning mathematics with understanding. Education Sciences, 13(4), 402. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13040402
Grave, I., & Pepin, B. (2015). Teachers’ use of resources in and for mathematics teaching. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 20(3-4), 199-222.
Eriksen, E., Solomon, Y., Bjerke, A. H., Gray, J., & Kleve, B. (2022). Making decisions about attainment grouping in mathematics: Teacher agency and autonomy in Norway. Research Papers in Education, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2022.2135014
Hackett, G., and Betz, N. E. (1989). An Exploration of the Mathematics Self-Efficacy/Mathematics Performance Correspondence. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20(3), 261-273. https://doi.org/10.2307/749515
Herset, M., & El Ghami, M. (2022). The effect of level-marking mathematical tasks on students’ time spent on such tasks and correct solutions: An experimental study. Twelfth Congress of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education (CERME12), Feb 2022, Bozen-Bol, Italy.
Herset, M., El Ghami, M., & Bjerke, A. H. (2023). The effect of level-marked mathematics tasks on students’ self-efficacy: An experimental study. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116386
Jacobs, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (1984). Understanding persistence: An interface of control theory and self-efficacy theory. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 5(4), 333-347. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp0504_6
Joët, G., Usher, E. L., & Bressoux, P. (2011). Sources of self-efficacy: An investigation of elementary school students in France. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(3), 649. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024048
Kim, H. Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 38(1), 52-54. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52
Krauthausen, G. (2018). Natural differentiation – An approach to cope with heterogeneity. In G. Kaiser, H. Forgasz, M. Graven, A. Kuzniak, E. Simmt, & B. Xu (Hrsg.), Invited lectures from the 13th International Congress on Mathematical Education. ICME-13 Monographs. Springer Open. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72170-5_19.
Liu, Q., Liu, J., Cai, J., & Zhang, Z. (2020). The relationship between domain- and task-specific self-efficacy and mathematical problem posing: A large-scale study of eighth-grade students in China. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 105(3), 407-431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-020-09977-w
Luster, R. (2008). A quantitative study investigating the effects of whole-class and differentiated instruction on student achievement. [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University].
Lyman, R. D., Prentice‐Dunn, S., Wilson, D. R., & Bonfilio, S. A. (1984). The effect of success or failure on self-efficacy and task persistence of conduct‐disordered children. Psychology in the Schools, 21(4), 516-519. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(198410)21:4<516::AIDPITS2310210419>3.0.CO;2-O
Miele, D. B., Browman, A. S., Shen, C., Vasilyeva, M. & Tyumeneva, Y. A. (2022). Domain-general and math-specific self-perceptions of perseverance as predictors of behavioral math persistence. The Journal of Experimental Education, 90(3), 593-614. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2020.1799312
Montague, M., & Applegate, B. (2000). Middle school students’ perceptions, persistence, and performance in mathematical problem solving. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23(3), 215-227. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511165
Moyer, J. C., Robison, V., & Cai, J. (2018). Attitudes of high-school students taught using traditional and reform mathematics curricula in middle school: A retrospective analysis. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 98, 115-134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9809-4
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(1), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The concept of flow. In C. Snyder & S. Lopez (Ed.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 89-105). New York: Oxford University Press.
Óturai, G., Riener, C., & Martiny, S. E. (2023). Attitudes towards mathematics, achievement, and drop-out intentions among STEM and non-STEM students in Norway. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100230
Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543-478. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170653
Pajares, F., & Miller, M. D. (1995). Mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics performances: The need for specificity of assessment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(2), 190-198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.42.2.190
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pierce, R. L., & Adams, C. M. (2005). Using tiered lessons in mathematics. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 11(3), 144-149. https://doi.org/10.5951/MTMS.11.3.0144
Sasidharan, S., & Kareem, J. (2023). Mathematics self-efficacy, utility value and well-being among school students in India mediating role of student engagement. Investigations in Mathematics Learning, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/19477503.2023.2224652
Schunk, D. H. (1991). Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 207-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1991.9653133
Scott, B. E. (2012). The effectiveness of differentiated instruction in the elementary mathematics classroom [Doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana].
Sexton, T. L., & Tuckman, B. W. (1991). Self-beliefs and behavior: The role of self-efficacy and outcome expectation over time. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(7), 725-736. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90228-4
Shen, C., Miele, D. B., & Vasilyeva, M. (2016). The relation between college students’ academic mindsets and their persistence during math problem solving. Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 9(3), 38-56. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2016.0303
Skaalvik, E. M., Federici, R. A., & Klassen, R. M. (2015). Mathematics achievement and self-efficacy: Relations with motivation for mathematics. International Journal of Educational Research, 72, 129-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2015.06.008
Spielberg, Y., & Azaria, A. (2021). Revelation of task difficulty in AI-aided education. In 2021 IEEE 33rd International conference on tools with artificial intelligence (ICTAI) (pp. 1403-1408). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICTAI52525.2021.00223
Stein, M., & Burchartz, B. (2006). The invisible wall project: Reasoning and problem solving processes of primary and lower secondary students. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 8(1), 65-90. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327833mtl0801_4
Stevens, T., Olivárez Jr., A., & Hamman, D. (2006). The role of cognition, motivation, and emotion in explaining the mathematics achievement gap between Hispanic and White students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 28(2), 161-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986305286103
Street, K. E. S., Malmberg, L.-E., & Stylianides, G. J. (2017). Level, strength, and facet-specific self-efficacy in mathematics test performance. ZDM: Mathematics Education, 49(3), 379-395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0833-0
Street, K. E., Stylianides, G. J., & Malmberg, L. E. (2022). Differential relationships between mathematics self-efficacy and national test performance according to perceived task difficulty. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 29(3), 288-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2022.2095980
Suarez D. (2007). Differentiation by challenge: Using a tiered program of instruction in mathematics. In W. Powel & O. K. Powel (Eds.), Making the difference: Differentiation in international schools (pp. 199-227). Kuala Lumpur: EAF Press.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria: ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Differentiating instruction: Why bother? Middle Ground, 9(1), 12-14.
Usher, E. L., & Pajares, F. (2009). Sources of self-efficacy in mathematics: A validation study. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 89-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.09.002
West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues and applications (pp. 56-75). London: Sage.
Zakariya, Y. F. (2019). Study approaches in higher education mathematics: investigating the statistical behaviour of an instrument translated into Norwegian. Education sciences, 9(3), 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9030191
Zakariya, Y. F. (2021). Self-efficacy between previous and current mathematics performance of undergraduate students: An instrumental variable approach to exposing a causal relationship. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.556607
Zientek, L. R., Fong, C. J., & Phelps, J. M. (2019). Sources of self-efficacy of community college students enrolled in developmental mathematics. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 43(2), 183-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2017.1357071
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2024-03-04
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