Ocean Food Systems and Hybrid Seafood Production: Transdisciplinary Case Studies of Cod, Eels, Salmon, and Lobster
Keywords:
ocean food systems, fisheries, aquaculture, capture-based aquaculture, aquaculture enhanced fisheries, fed fisheries, proto-aquaculture
Abstract
Capture fisheries and aquaculture are researched, planned, and managed throughout the world as if they are independent entities ignoring their complex and evolving interdependencies. Global attention on “blue foods” as an important part of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is focused on the restoration of capture fisheries and the sustainable expansion of aquaculture. Such a binary approach does not fit the current realities, opportunities, and innovations in ocean food systems (OFS), and does not integrate enough of the necessary transdisciplinary knowledge across professions. Integration of knowledge across professions is needed as modern ocean foods enter common marketplaces so interventions to increase sustainability must incorporate data on rural economic development, producers and their mixed ocean/land-based livelihoods and seasonal employment patterns, tourism, data on local to regional and global trade, and consumer behaviors. Four case studies detail the status and evolution of OFS typologies of American and spiny lobsters as fed fisheries, salmon as aquaculture-enhanced fisheries, and the capture-based aquacultures for cod and for eels. Objectives of this review were to examine for four OFS cases if there was adequate evidence to show that they were as productive, economically attractive, and as socially beneficial OFS that rival those of binary aquaculture or fisheries systems alone; and did they have significant potential to accelerate innovations as much as those sectors. For the four cases reviewed, productive, social and ecologically valuable, rapidly evolving OFS existed with demonstrable innovation trajectories. In the early part of this century it was estimated that capture-based aquaculture (CBA) accounted for about 20% of the total quantity of food fish production worth US$1.7 billion. Review of just four case studies having a limited number of participating countries found that annual value of the OFS exceeded US$4 billion: the value of eels as a capture-based aquaculture (CBA) was estimated US$2.3 billion for just two countries; for salmon as an aquaculture-enhanced fishery at $1.7 billion for only one state of the USA; and for lobsters as fed fisheries and a CBA, $825 million for the USA and Vietnam. However, OFS are disruptive as they require radically changed science, education, management, and development policies as current binary fisheries and aquaculture management approaches do not fit their current realities, or opportunities, or accelerate innovations, plus poorly integrate knowledge across professions. This was demonstrated by the example of dynamic management/regulatory situation for cod wild fisheries and the growing CBA for cod in Norway. The coming decades of accelerated climate and social changes will cause concomitant changes to ocean foods markets from local to global, and rural ocean foods livelihoods. These two systemic changes will drive the evolution and development of a greater diversity of OFS that will require much more attention of policy-makers and investors.
References
Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Kapetsky, J., & Soto, D. (2010). The potential of spatial planning tools to support the ecosystem approach to aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings, 17. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
American Unagi. (2023). Our farm. Retrieved from https://americanunagi.com/pages/our-farm
Anderson J. (2002). Aquaculture and the future: why fisheries economists should care. Marine Resource Economics, 17, 133–151. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42629357
Ashrafi, T. A., Eide, A., Ashrafi, T.A., Eide, A., & Hermansen, Ø. (2020). Spatial and temporal distributions in the Norwegian cod fishery. Natural Resource Modeling, 33, e12276. https://doi.org/10.1111/nrm.12276
ASMFC (Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission). (2020). American eel. Retrieved from http://www.asmfc.org/species/american-eel
Athithan, S. (2020). Coastal Aquacultures and Mariculture. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Atlas, W. I., Ban, N. C., Moore, J. W., Tuohy, A. M., Greening, S., Reid, A. J., … Connors, K. (2020). Indigenous systems of management for culturally and ecologically resilient Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) fisheries. BioScience, 71, 186-204. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/biosci/biaa144
Bahrawi, S., Priyambodo, B., & Jones, C. (2015). Lobster seed fishing, handling and transport in Indonesia. In C. M. Jones (Ed.), Spiny Lobster Aquaculture Development in Indonesia, Vietnam and Australia (pp. 36-38). Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.
Balon, E. K. (1995). Origin and domestication of the wild carp, Cyprinus carpio: from Roman gourmets to he swimming flowers. Aquaculture 129, 3-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(94)00227-F
Beamish, R. J., & Neville, C. (2021). The natural regulation and relevance of wild and hatchery coho salmon in the Strait of Georgia. Fisheries 46, 539-551. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsh.10651
Beamish. R. J., & Riddell, B. (2009). The future of fisheries science on Canada’s west coast is keeping up with the changes. In R. J. Beamish, & B. J. Rothschild (Eds.), The Future of Fisheries Science in North America, (pp. 567-551) New York: Springer Science.
Belton, B., Little, D. C., Zhang, W., Edwards, P., Skladany, M., & Thilsted, S. H. (2020). Farming fish in the sea will not nourish the world. Nature Communications, 11, 5804. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9
Beveridge, M. C. M., & Little, D.C. (2002). The history of aquaculture in traditional societies. In B.A. Costa-Pierce (Ed.), Ecological Aquaculture: The Evolution of the Blue Revolution (pp. 3-29) Oxford: Blackwell.
Blue Food Assessment. (2021). Retrived from https://bluefood.earth/
Boochuwong, P., & Lawapong, A. (2002). Marketing and export of grouper in Thailand. In Report of the APEC/NACA Cooperative Grouper Aquaculture Workshop, Hat Yai, April 7-9, 1999, (pp.45-51). Retrived from https://enaca.org/?id=4899
Brenner, R. E., Donnellan, S. J., & Munro, A. R. (2022). Run Forecasts and Harvest Projections for 2022 Alaska Salmon Fisheries and Review of the 2021 Season. Special Publication 22-11. Anchorage: Department of Fish and Game Divisions of Sport Fish and Commercial Fisheries. Retrieved from https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/FedAidPDFs/SP22-11.pdfs
Case, K. E., Fair, R. C., & Oster, S. M. (2012). Principles of Economics (10th ed.) New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
CEA Consulting. (2020). Progress Towards Sustainable Seafood–By the Numbers. Palo Alto, CA: Packard Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.ceaconsulting.com/progress-toward-sustainable-seafood-by-the-numbers/n.
Claisse, J. T., Pondella II, D. J., Love, M., Zahn, L. A., Williams, C. M. Williams, J. P., & Bull, A. S. (2014). Oil platforms off California are among the most productive marine fish habitats globally. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences, 28, 15462-15467. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411477111
Clarke, C., Fraser, D., & Purchase, C. (2016). Lifelong and carry-over effects of early captive exposure in a recovery program for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Animal Conservation, 19, 350-359. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12251
Costa-Pierce, B. A. (2022). The anthropology of aquaculture. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fsufs.2022.843743
Costa-Pierce, B. A., Bockus, A. B., Buck, B. H., van den Burg, S. W. K., Chopin, T., Ferreira, J.G., … Tacon, A. G. J. (2021). A fishy story promoting a false dichotomy to policy-makers: it’s not freshwater vs. marine aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 1-18. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/23308249.2021.2014175
Costa-Pierce, B. A., Thorarensen, H. T., & Strand, Å. (2022). Editorial: Ocean/aquatic food systems: Interactions with ecosystems, fisheries, aquaculture, and people Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. https://doi:10.3389/fsufs.2022.1021801
Costello, C., & 21 authors. (2020). The future of food from the sea. Nature, 588, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y
Cottrell, R. S., Metian, M., Froehlich, H. E., Blanchard, J. L., Jacobsen, N. S., McIntyre, P. B., Nash, K. L., Williams, D. R., Bouwman, L., & Gephart, J. A. (2021). Time to rethink trophic levels in aquaculture policy. Reviews in Aquaculture, 13, 1583-1593. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12535
Crona, B. I., & 30 c-authors. (2023). Four ways blue foods can help achieve food system ambitions across nations. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05737-x
Crook, V. (2018, April). Overview of recent trade in Anguilla spp., focusing on American Eel range. Paper presented at the American Eel Range States Workshop Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Retrieved from http://www.sargassoseacommission.org/storage/Vicki_Crook_presentation_VC3.pdf
Defries, R. S., Foley, J., & Asner, G.P. (2004). Land-use choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2, 249-257. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0249:LCBHNA]2.0.CO;2
Don, A., & Coulson, P. (2019). Eels-Biology, Monitoring, Management, Culture and Exploitation. Proceedings of the First International Eel Science Symposium. Sheffield, U.K.: 5M Publishing. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jfb.14260
Downeast Salmon Federation. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.mainesalmonrivers.org/conservation-hatcheries
Dreyer, B. M., Nøstvold, B. H., Midling, K. Ø., & Hermansen, Ø. (2008). Capture-based aquaculture of cod. In: A Lovatelli, & P.F. Holthus (Eds.) Capture-based Aquaculture. Global Overview. (pp. 183-198). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
European Commisssion. (2020). Blue Bioeconomy Report. Retrived from http://www.eumofa.eu
FAO. (2007). Species choice in aquaculture: domestication processes, genetic improvement and their role in sustainable aquaculture. Report from the 6th Session of the Advisory Committee on Fisheries Research. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO. (2012). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Frost, H., Nielsen, M., Jensen, C., & Vestergaard, N. (2000). An economic cost analysis of the use of the glass eel. Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish Institute of Food Economics.
Gonzales, E. (2006). The Future of Mariculture: A Regional Approach for Responsible Development of Marine Farming in the Asia-Pacific Region. Retrived from http://streaminitiative.com
Government of Iceland. n.d. Retrieved from https://www.government.is/topics/business-and-industry/fisheries-in-iceland/fisheries-management/
Grabowski, J. Clesceri, E., Gaudette, J., Weber, M., & Yund, P. (2010). Use of herring bait to farm lobsters in the Gulf of Maine. PLOS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010188
Harnish, L., & Martin Willison, J. H. (2009). Efficiency of bait usage in the Nova Scotia lobster fishery: a first look. Journal of Cleaner Production, 17, 345-347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.08.005
Hedberg, N., Stenson, I., Kautsky, N., Hellström, M., & Tedengren, M. (2017). Causes and consequences of spatial links between sea cage aquaculture and coral reefs in Vietnam. Aquaculture, 481, 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.09.009
Hedberg, N., Stenson, I., Nitz Pettersson, M., Warshan, D., Nguyen-Kim, H., Tedengren, M., & Kautsky, N. (2018). Antibiotic use in Vietnamese fish and lobster sea cage farms; implications for coral reefs and human health. Aquaculture, 495, 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.06.005
Heinsbroek, L. T. N. (1991). A review of eel culture in Japan and Europe. Aquaculture Research, 57-72. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-2109.1991.tb00495.x
Hermansen, Ø. (2017). Special Feature. Norwegian capture-based aquaculture of cod. In GLOBEFISH HIGHLIGHTS: A quarterly update on world seafood markets (pp. 64-67). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/i8204e/i8204e.pdf
Hermansen, Ø. (2018). En økonomisk analyse av verdikjeden for fangstbasert akvakultur–med fokus på fangstleddet (In Norwegian: An economic analysis of the supply chain for catch-based aquaculture). Økonomisk fiskeriforskning, 28, 1-19.
Hermansen, Ø., & Dreyer, B. (2008). Capture-based aquaculture – Sustainable value adding to capture fisheries? Paper presented at the International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade 2008: Achieving a Sustainable Future Managing Aquaculture Fishing Trade and Development, NhaTrang, Vietnam. Retrieved from https://www.proceedings.com/14211.html
Hilborn, R., Banobi, J., Hall, S.J., Pucylowski, T., & Walsworth, T.E. (2018). The environmental cost of animal source foods. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 16, 329-335. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1822
HLPE. (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/HLPE-Report-7-EN.pdf
Hoegh-Guldberg. O., et al. (2019). The Ocean as a Solution to Climate Change: Five Opportunities for Action. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Retrieved from https://www.oceanpanel.org/climate
Jeffs, A., & Hooker, S. (2000). Economic feasibility of aquaculture of spiny lobsters Jasus edwardsii in temperate waters. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 31, 3-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2000.tb00695.x
Jury, S.H, Howell, H, O’Grady, D., & Watson, W. (2001). Lobster trap video: in situ video surveillance of the behavior of Homarus americanus in and around traps. Marine and Freshwater Research, 52, 1125–1132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/MF01096
Klinger, D. H., Turnipseed, M., Anderson, J. L., Asche, F., Crowder, L. B., Guttormsen, A. G., … Tyedmers, P. (2013). Moving beyond the fished or farmed dichotomy. Marine Policy, 38, 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.06.015
Little, D., Bush, S., Belton, B., Phuong, N., & Young, J. (2012). Whitefish wars: Pangasius, politics and consumer confusion in Europe. Marine Policy, 36, 738-745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2011.10.006
Lovatelli, A., & Holthus, P.F. (2008). Capture-based aquaculture, Global overview. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Capture-based-aquaculture.-Global-overview-Lovatelli-Holthus/defdc58fd02a59b6a3f7034769473fb80ec34098
Maine DMR (Department of Marine Resources). (2010). Data from Maine lobster landings by county. Retrieved from http://www.maine.gov/dmr/commercialfishing/lobster.mht
Maine DMR (Department of Marine Resources). (2023). Lobster - Science and Research Species Information. Augusta, ME: Department of Marine Resources. Retrieved from https://www.maine.gov/dmr/fisheries/commercial/landings-program/historical-data
MARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development). (2007). Annual Report on Aquaculture Status in Central Provinces. Spiny Lobster Farming in Vietnam and the Role of Probiotics during Production. Hanoi, Vietnam: MARD. Retrieved from https://en.engormix.com/aquaculture/articles/spiny-lobster-farming-vietnam-t35845.htm
McDowell Group (2022). The Economic Value of Alaska’s Seafood Industry. Juneau, AK: Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute. Retrieved from https://www.alaskaseafood.org/news/for-release-2022-economic-value-of-alaskas-seafood-industry-report/
McNair, M. (2000). Alaska Salmon Enhancement Program 1999 Annual Report. Regional Information Report 5J00-02. Juneau, AK: Division of Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement, and Development, Department of Fish and Game. Retrieved from https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/fedaidpdfs/RIR.5J.2000.02.pdf
Miller, M. J., Hanel, R., Feunteun, E., & Tsukamoto, K. (2020). The food source of Sargasso Sea leptocephali. Marine Biology, 167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-020-3662-6
Mortensen, L. O., Ulrich, C., Hansen, J., & Hald, R. (2018). Identifying choke species challenges for an individual demersal trawler in the North Sea, lessons from conversations and data analysis. Marine Policy 87, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.09.031
Naish, K. A., Taylor 3rd, J.E., Levin, P. S., Quinn, T. P., Winton, J. R., Huppert, D., & Hilborn, R. (2007). An evaluation of the effects of conservation and fishery enhancement hatcheries on wild populations of salmon. Advances in Marine Biology, 53, 61-194. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0065-2881(07)53002-6
Nguyen, T.T., Barber, A. R., Corbin, K., & Zhang, W. (2017). Lobster processing by-products as valuable bioresource of marine functional ingredients, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. Bioresources and Bioprospecting 4, 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-017-0157-5
O’Connor, S., Ono, R., & Clarkson, C. (2011). Pelagic fishing at 42,000 years before the present and the maritime skills of modern humans. Science, 334, 1117–1121. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.12077 03.
O’Shea, T., Jones, R., Markham, A., Norell, E., Scott, J., Theuerkauf, S., & Waters, T. (2019). Towards a Blue Revolution: Catalyzing Private Investment in Sustainable Aquaculture Production Systems. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved from https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/TNC_EncourageCapital_TowardsABlueRevolution_v1_1.pdf
Ottolenghi, F., Silvestri, C., Giordano, P., Lovatelli, A., & New, M.B. (2004). Capture-based Aquaculture. The Fattening of Eels, Groupers, Tunas and Yellowtails. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XF2015021688
Pettersen, K., Asche, F., Bronnmann, J., Sogn-Grundvåg, G., & Straume, H.-M. (2023). Is capture-based aquaculture viable? The case of Atlantic cod in Norway. Aquaculture, 739520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2023.739520
Puvanendran, V., Mortensen, A., Johansen, L.-H., Kettunen, A., Hansen, Ø. J., Henriksen, E., & Heide, M. (2021). Development of cod farming in Norway: Past and current biological and market status and future prospects and directions. Reviews in Aquaculture, 14, 308-342. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12599
Rana, K. J. (1998). Recent developments in aquaculture statistics. Fishery and aquaculture statistics in Asia. In Proceedings of the FAO/SEAFDEC Regional Workshop on Fishery Statistics. 19-21 August 1997 (pp. 242-254). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12066/5424
Ricklefs, R. E. (1979). Ecology. New York, NY: Chiron Press.
Saila, S., Nixon, S., & Oviatt, C. (2002). Does lobster trap bait influence the Maine inshore trap fishery? North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 22, 602-605. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8675(2002)022<0602:DLTBIT>2.0.CO;2
SAPEA (Science Advice for Policy by European Academies). (2017). Food from the oceans: how can more food and biomass be obtained from the oceans in a way that does not deprive future generations of their benefits? Berlin, Germany: SAPEA. https://doi.org/10.26356/foodfromtheoceans
Sogn-Grundvåg, G., Zhang, D., Henriksen, E., Joensen, S., Bendiksen, B. I., & Hermansen, Ø. (2021). Fish quality and market performance: The case of the coastal fishery for Atlantic cod in Norway. Marine Policy, 127, 104449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104449
Sogn-Grundvåg, G., & Hermansen, Ø. (2022). Quality-enhancing fishing in the coastal fishery for Atlantic cod in Norway. Marine Policy, 143, 105191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105191
Stevens, J., Newton, R.W., Tlusty, M., & Little, D. C. (2018). The rise of aquaculture by-products: Increasing food production, value, and sustainability through strategic utilization. Mar. Pol., 90, 115-124.
Stuchtey, M. R., Vincent, A., Merkl, A., & Bucher, M. B. (2020). Ocean Solutions That Benefit People, Nature and the Economy. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Retrieved from https://www.oceanpanel.org/ocean-solutions
Sumaila, U. R., Pierruci, A., Oyinlola, M. A., Cannas, R., Froese, R., Glaser, S., … Pauly, D. (2022). Aquaculture over-optimism? Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 984354. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fmars.2022.984354
Svåsand, T., Kristiansen, T. S., Pedersen, T., Salvanes, A., Engelsen, R., Nævdal, G., & M. Nødtvedt., M. (2000). The enhancement of cod stocks. Fish and Fisheries, 1, 173- 205. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1467-2979.2000.00017.X
Tellis, W. M. (1997). Application of a case study methodology. The Qualitative Report, 3, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/1997.2015
The Fishing Daily. (2022). Norway issues regulation on cod, haddock and saithe in 2023. Retrieved at: https://thefishingdaily.com/latest-news/norway-issues-regulation-on-cod-haddock-and-saithe-in-2023/#:~:text=3%2C000%20tonnes%20have%20been%20set,30%20per%20cent%20quota%20bonus.
The Global Economy. (2023). Fish meal prices. Retrieved February 2023, from https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/world/fish_meal_prices/
Utama, M. I. C., Yustiati, A., Andriani, Y., & Rostika, R. (2021). Lobster Cultivation in Indonesia and Vietnam: A Review. Asian J. Fish. Aq. Res., 13(1), 12-20. https://doi.org/10.9734/AJFAR/2021/v13i130255
Weichselgartner, J., & Truffer, B. (2015). From knowledge co-production to transdisciplinary research: lessons from the quest to produce socially robust knowledge. In B. Werlen (Ed.), Global Sustainability (pp. 89-106). New York, NY: Springer.
Willett, W., & 36 co-authors. (2019). Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT– Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet, 393(10170), 447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4.
Yuan, Y., Yuan, Y., Dai, Y., Gong, Y., & Yiqun, Y. (2021). Development status and trends in the eel farming industry in Asia. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 84, 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10187
Zajicek, P., Corbin, J., Belle, S., & Rheault, R. (2021). Refuting marine aquaculture myths, unfounded criticisms, and assumptions. Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2021.1980767
Zou, C., Thunberg, E., & Ardini, G. (2021). Economic Profile for American Lobster (Homarus americanus) Fleets in the Northeastern United States. Woods Hole, MA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service Northeast Fisheries Science Center. Retrieved from https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/29003
American Unagi. (2023). Our farm. Retrieved from https://americanunagi.com/pages/our-farm
Anderson J. (2002). Aquaculture and the future: why fisheries economists should care. Marine Resource Economics, 17, 133–151. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42629357
Ashrafi, T. A., Eide, A., Ashrafi, T.A., Eide, A., & Hermansen, Ø. (2020). Spatial and temporal distributions in the Norwegian cod fishery. Natural Resource Modeling, 33, e12276. https://doi.org/10.1111/nrm.12276
ASMFC (Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission). (2020). American eel. Retrieved from http://www.asmfc.org/species/american-eel
Athithan, S. (2020). Coastal Aquacultures and Mariculture. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Atlas, W. I., Ban, N. C., Moore, J. W., Tuohy, A. M., Greening, S., Reid, A. J., … Connors, K. (2020). Indigenous systems of management for culturally and ecologically resilient Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) fisheries. BioScience, 71, 186-204. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/biosci/biaa144
Bahrawi, S., Priyambodo, B., & Jones, C. (2015). Lobster seed fishing, handling and transport in Indonesia. In C. M. Jones (Ed.), Spiny Lobster Aquaculture Development in Indonesia, Vietnam and Australia (pp. 36-38). Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.
Balon, E. K. (1995). Origin and domestication of the wild carp, Cyprinus carpio: from Roman gourmets to he swimming flowers. Aquaculture 129, 3-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(94)00227-F
Beamish, R. J., & Neville, C. (2021). The natural regulation and relevance of wild and hatchery coho salmon in the Strait of Georgia. Fisheries 46, 539-551. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsh.10651
Beamish. R. J., & Riddell, B. (2009). The future of fisheries science on Canada’s west coast is keeping up with the changes. In R. J. Beamish, & B. J. Rothschild (Eds.), The Future of Fisheries Science in North America, (pp. 567-551) New York: Springer Science.
Belton, B., Little, D. C., Zhang, W., Edwards, P., Skladany, M., & Thilsted, S. H. (2020). Farming fish in the sea will not nourish the world. Nature Communications, 11, 5804. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9
Beveridge, M. C. M., & Little, D.C. (2002). The history of aquaculture in traditional societies. In B.A. Costa-Pierce (Ed.), Ecological Aquaculture: The Evolution of the Blue Revolution (pp. 3-29) Oxford: Blackwell.
Blue Food Assessment. (2021). Retrived from https://bluefood.earth/
Boochuwong, P., & Lawapong, A. (2002). Marketing and export of grouper in Thailand. In Report of the APEC/NACA Cooperative Grouper Aquaculture Workshop, Hat Yai, April 7-9, 1999, (pp.45-51). Retrived from https://enaca.org/?id=4899
Brenner, R. E., Donnellan, S. J., & Munro, A. R. (2022). Run Forecasts and Harvest Projections for 2022 Alaska Salmon Fisheries and Review of the 2021 Season. Special Publication 22-11. Anchorage: Department of Fish and Game Divisions of Sport Fish and Commercial Fisheries. Retrieved from https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/FedAidPDFs/SP22-11.pdfs
Case, K. E., Fair, R. C., & Oster, S. M. (2012). Principles of Economics (10th ed.) New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
CEA Consulting. (2020). Progress Towards Sustainable Seafood–By the Numbers. Palo Alto, CA: Packard Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.ceaconsulting.com/progress-toward-sustainable-seafood-by-the-numbers/n.
Claisse, J. T., Pondella II, D. J., Love, M., Zahn, L. A., Williams, C. M. Williams, J. P., & Bull, A. S. (2014). Oil platforms off California are among the most productive marine fish habitats globally. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences, 28, 15462-15467. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411477111
Clarke, C., Fraser, D., & Purchase, C. (2016). Lifelong and carry-over effects of early captive exposure in a recovery program for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Animal Conservation, 19, 350-359. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12251
Costa-Pierce, B. A. (2022). The anthropology of aquaculture. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fsufs.2022.843743
Costa-Pierce, B. A., Bockus, A. B., Buck, B. H., van den Burg, S. W. K., Chopin, T., Ferreira, J.G., … Tacon, A. G. J. (2021). A fishy story promoting a false dichotomy to policy-makers: it’s not freshwater vs. marine aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 1-18. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/23308249.2021.2014175
Costa-Pierce, B. A., Thorarensen, H. T., & Strand, Å. (2022). Editorial: Ocean/aquatic food systems: Interactions with ecosystems, fisheries, aquaculture, and people Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. https://doi:10.3389/fsufs.2022.1021801
Costello, C., & 21 authors. (2020). The future of food from the sea. Nature, 588, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y
Cottrell, R. S., Metian, M., Froehlich, H. E., Blanchard, J. L., Jacobsen, N. S., McIntyre, P. B., Nash, K. L., Williams, D. R., Bouwman, L., & Gephart, J. A. (2021). Time to rethink trophic levels in aquaculture policy. Reviews in Aquaculture, 13, 1583-1593. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12535
Crona, B. I., & 30 c-authors. (2023). Four ways blue foods can help achieve food system ambitions across nations. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05737-x
Crook, V. (2018, April). Overview of recent trade in Anguilla spp., focusing on American Eel range. Paper presented at the American Eel Range States Workshop Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Retrieved from http://www.sargassoseacommission.org/storage/Vicki_Crook_presentation_VC3.pdf
Defries, R. S., Foley, J., & Asner, G.P. (2004). Land-use choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2, 249-257. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0249:LCBHNA]2.0.CO;2
Don, A., & Coulson, P. (2019). Eels-Biology, Monitoring, Management, Culture and Exploitation. Proceedings of the First International Eel Science Symposium. Sheffield, U.K.: 5M Publishing. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jfb.14260
Downeast Salmon Federation. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.mainesalmonrivers.org/conservation-hatcheries
Dreyer, B. M., Nøstvold, B. H., Midling, K. Ø., & Hermansen, Ø. (2008). Capture-based aquaculture of cod. In: A Lovatelli, & P.F. Holthus (Eds.) Capture-based Aquaculture. Global Overview. (pp. 183-198). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
European Commisssion. (2020). Blue Bioeconomy Report. Retrived from http://www.eumofa.eu
FAO. (2007). Species choice in aquaculture: domestication processes, genetic improvement and their role in sustainable aquaculture. Report from the 6th Session of the Advisory Committee on Fisheries Research. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO. (2012). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Frost, H., Nielsen, M., Jensen, C., & Vestergaard, N. (2000). An economic cost analysis of the use of the glass eel. Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish Institute of Food Economics.
Gonzales, E. (2006). The Future of Mariculture: A Regional Approach for Responsible Development of Marine Farming in the Asia-Pacific Region. Retrived from http://streaminitiative.com
Government of Iceland. n.d. Retrieved from https://www.government.is/topics/business-and-industry/fisheries-in-iceland/fisheries-management/
Grabowski, J. Clesceri, E., Gaudette, J., Weber, M., & Yund, P. (2010). Use of herring bait to farm lobsters in the Gulf of Maine. PLOS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010188
Harnish, L., & Martin Willison, J. H. (2009). Efficiency of bait usage in the Nova Scotia lobster fishery: a first look. Journal of Cleaner Production, 17, 345-347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.08.005
Hedberg, N., Stenson, I., Kautsky, N., Hellström, M., & Tedengren, M. (2017). Causes and consequences of spatial links between sea cage aquaculture and coral reefs in Vietnam. Aquaculture, 481, 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.09.009
Hedberg, N., Stenson, I., Nitz Pettersson, M., Warshan, D., Nguyen-Kim, H., Tedengren, M., & Kautsky, N. (2018). Antibiotic use in Vietnamese fish and lobster sea cage farms; implications for coral reefs and human health. Aquaculture, 495, 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.06.005
Heinsbroek, L. T. N. (1991). A review of eel culture in Japan and Europe. Aquaculture Research, 57-72. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-2109.1991.tb00495.x
Hermansen, Ø. (2017). Special Feature. Norwegian capture-based aquaculture of cod. In GLOBEFISH HIGHLIGHTS: A quarterly update on world seafood markets (pp. 64-67). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/i8204e/i8204e.pdf
Hermansen, Ø. (2018). En økonomisk analyse av verdikjeden for fangstbasert akvakultur–med fokus på fangstleddet (In Norwegian: An economic analysis of the supply chain for catch-based aquaculture). Økonomisk fiskeriforskning, 28, 1-19.
Hermansen, Ø., & Dreyer, B. (2008). Capture-based aquaculture – Sustainable value adding to capture fisheries? Paper presented at the International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade 2008: Achieving a Sustainable Future Managing Aquaculture Fishing Trade and Development, NhaTrang, Vietnam. Retrieved from https://www.proceedings.com/14211.html
Hilborn, R., Banobi, J., Hall, S.J., Pucylowski, T., & Walsworth, T.E. (2018). The environmental cost of animal source foods. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 16, 329-335. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1822
HLPE. (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/HLPE-Report-7-EN.pdf
Hoegh-Guldberg. O., et al. (2019). The Ocean as a Solution to Climate Change: Five Opportunities for Action. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Retrieved from https://www.oceanpanel.org/climate
Jeffs, A., & Hooker, S. (2000). Economic feasibility of aquaculture of spiny lobsters Jasus edwardsii in temperate waters. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 31, 3-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2000.tb00695.x
Jury, S.H, Howell, H, O’Grady, D., & Watson, W. (2001). Lobster trap video: in situ video surveillance of the behavior of Homarus americanus in and around traps. Marine and Freshwater Research, 52, 1125–1132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/MF01096
Klinger, D. H., Turnipseed, M., Anderson, J. L., Asche, F., Crowder, L. B., Guttormsen, A. G., … Tyedmers, P. (2013). Moving beyond the fished or farmed dichotomy. Marine Policy, 38, 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.06.015
Little, D., Bush, S., Belton, B., Phuong, N., & Young, J. (2012). Whitefish wars: Pangasius, politics and consumer confusion in Europe. Marine Policy, 36, 738-745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2011.10.006
Lovatelli, A., & Holthus, P.F. (2008). Capture-based aquaculture, Global overview. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Capture-based-aquaculture.-Global-overview-Lovatelli-Holthus/defdc58fd02a59b6a3f7034769473fb80ec34098
Maine DMR (Department of Marine Resources). (2010). Data from Maine lobster landings by county. Retrieved from http://www.maine.gov/dmr/commercialfishing/lobster.mht
Maine DMR (Department of Marine Resources). (2023). Lobster - Science and Research Species Information. Augusta, ME: Department of Marine Resources. Retrieved from https://www.maine.gov/dmr/fisheries/commercial/landings-program/historical-data
MARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development). (2007). Annual Report on Aquaculture Status in Central Provinces. Spiny Lobster Farming in Vietnam and the Role of Probiotics during Production. Hanoi, Vietnam: MARD. Retrieved from https://en.engormix.com/aquaculture/articles/spiny-lobster-farming-vietnam-t35845.htm
McDowell Group (2022). The Economic Value of Alaska’s Seafood Industry. Juneau, AK: Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute. Retrieved from https://www.alaskaseafood.org/news/for-release-2022-economic-value-of-alaskas-seafood-industry-report/
McNair, M. (2000). Alaska Salmon Enhancement Program 1999 Annual Report. Regional Information Report 5J00-02. Juneau, AK: Division of Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement, and Development, Department of Fish and Game. Retrieved from https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/fedaidpdfs/RIR.5J.2000.02.pdf
Miller, M. J., Hanel, R., Feunteun, E., & Tsukamoto, K. (2020). The food source of Sargasso Sea leptocephali. Marine Biology, 167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-020-3662-6
Mortensen, L. O., Ulrich, C., Hansen, J., & Hald, R. (2018). Identifying choke species challenges for an individual demersal trawler in the North Sea, lessons from conversations and data analysis. Marine Policy 87, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.09.031
Naish, K. A., Taylor 3rd, J.E., Levin, P. S., Quinn, T. P., Winton, J. R., Huppert, D., & Hilborn, R. (2007). An evaluation of the effects of conservation and fishery enhancement hatcheries on wild populations of salmon. Advances in Marine Biology, 53, 61-194. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0065-2881(07)53002-6
Nguyen, T.T., Barber, A. R., Corbin, K., & Zhang, W. (2017). Lobster processing by-products as valuable bioresource of marine functional ingredients, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. Bioresources and Bioprospecting 4, 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-017-0157-5
O’Connor, S., Ono, R., & Clarkson, C. (2011). Pelagic fishing at 42,000 years before the present and the maritime skills of modern humans. Science, 334, 1117–1121. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.12077 03.
O’Shea, T., Jones, R., Markham, A., Norell, E., Scott, J., Theuerkauf, S., & Waters, T. (2019). Towards a Blue Revolution: Catalyzing Private Investment in Sustainable Aquaculture Production Systems. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved from https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/TNC_EncourageCapital_TowardsABlueRevolution_v1_1.pdf
Ottolenghi, F., Silvestri, C., Giordano, P., Lovatelli, A., & New, M.B. (2004). Capture-based Aquaculture. The Fattening of Eels, Groupers, Tunas and Yellowtails. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XF2015021688
Pettersen, K., Asche, F., Bronnmann, J., Sogn-Grundvåg, G., & Straume, H.-M. (2023). Is capture-based aquaculture viable? The case of Atlantic cod in Norway. Aquaculture, 739520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2023.739520
Puvanendran, V., Mortensen, A., Johansen, L.-H., Kettunen, A., Hansen, Ø. J., Henriksen, E., & Heide, M. (2021). Development of cod farming in Norway: Past and current biological and market status and future prospects and directions. Reviews in Aquaculture, 14, 308-342. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12599
Rana, K. J. (1998). Recent developments in aquaculture statistics. Fishery and aquaculture statistics in Asia. In Proceedings of the FAO/SEAFDEC Regional Workshop on Fishery Statistics. 19-21 August 1997 (pp. 242-254). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12066/5424
Ricklefs, R. E. (1979). Ecology. New York, NY: Chiron Press.
Saila, S., Nixon, S., & Oviatt, C. (2002). Does lobster trap bait influence the Maine inshore trap fishery? North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 22, 602-605. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8675(2002)022<0602:DLTBIT>2.0.CO;2
SAPEA (Science Advice for Policy by European Academies). (2017). Food from the oceans: how can more food and biomass be obtained from the oceans in a way that does not deprive future generations of their benefits? Berlin, Germany: SAPEA. https://doi.org/10.26356/foodfromtheoceans
Sogn-Grundvåg, G., Zhang, D., Henriksen, E., Joensen, S., Bendiksen, B. I., & Hermansen, Ø. (2021). Fish quality and market performance: The case of the coastal fishery for Atlantic cod in Norway. Marine Policy, 127, 104449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104449
Sogn-Grundvåg, G., & Hermansen, Ø. (2022). Quality-enhancing fishing in the coastal fishery for Atlantic cod in Norway. Marine Policy, 143, 105191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105191
Stevens, J., Newton, R.W., Tlusty, M., & Little, D. C. (2018). The rise of aquaculture by-products: Increasing food production, value, and sustainability through strategic utilization. Mar. Pol., 90, 115-124.
Stuchtey, M. R., Vincent, A., Merkl, A., & Bucher, M. B. (2020). Ocean Solutions That Benefit People, Nature and the Economy. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Retrieved from https://www.oceanpanel.org/ocean-solutions
Sumaila, U. R., Pierruci, A., Oyinlola, M. A., Cannas, R., Froese, R., Glaser, S., … Pauly, D. (2022). Aquaculture over-optimism? Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 984354. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fmars.2022.984354
Svåsand, T., Kristiansen, T. S., Pedersen, T., Salvanes, A., Engelsen, R., Nævdal, G., & M. Nødtvedt., M. (2000). The enhancement of cod stocks. Fish and Fisheries, 1, 173- 205. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1467-2979.2000.00017.X
Tellis, W. M. (1997). Application of a case study methodology. The Qualitative Report, 3, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/1997.2015
The Fishing Daily. (2022). Norway issues regulation on cod, haddock and saithe in 2023. Retrieved at: https://thefishingdaily.com/latest-news/norway-issues-regulation-on-cod-haddock-and-saithe-in-2023/#:~:text=3%2C000%20tonnes%20have%20been%20set,30%20per%20cent%20quota%20bonus.
The Global Economy. (2023). Fish meal prices. Retrieved February 2023, from https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/world/fish_meal_prices/
Utama, M. I. C., Yustiati, A., Andriani, Y., & Rostika, R. (2021). Lobster Cultivation in Indonesia and Vietnam: A Review. Asian J. Fish. Aq. Res., 13(1), 12-20. https://doi.org/10.9734/AJFAR/2021/v13i130255
Weichselgartner, J., & Truffer, B. (2015). From knowledge co-production to transdisciplinary research: lessons from the quest to produce socially robust knowledge. In B. Werlen (Ed.), Global Sustainability (pp. 89-106). New York, NY: Springer.
Willett, W., & 36 co-authors. (2019). Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT– Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet, 393(10170), 447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4.
Yuan, Y., Yuan, Y., Dai, Y., Gong, Y., & Yiqun, Y. (2021). Development status and trends in the eel farming industry in Asia. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 84, 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10187
Zajicek, P., Corbin, J., Belle, S., & Rheault, R. (2021). Refuting marine aquaculture myths, unfounded criticisms, and assumptions. Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2021.1980767
Zou, C., Thunberg, E., & Ardini, G. (2021). Economic Profile for American Lobster (Homarus americanus) Fleets in the Northeastern United States. Woods Hole, MA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service Northeast Fisheries Science Center. Retrieved from https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/29003
Published
2023-04-02
Issue
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
