Institutional Design for Sustainable Urbanization in the Caribbean
Keywords:
Caribbean, sustainable urbanization, policy-institutional framework, urban agenda
Abstract
Essentially, sustainable urbanization is a political choice. Following this proposition, this paper seeks to critically assess the policy-institutional framework that is established or being proposed to shape the urban agenda in the Caribbean. Locating the research activity within a sample of countries in the region, desk analysis of the policies and legislation corresponding to urbanization in these countries is undertaken, complemented by lesson-drawing from case studies of international experience to determine the efficacy of the region’s policy-institutional framework and the extent to which it mirrors international norms. Preliminary findings suggest that sustainable urbanization remains a concept in the Caribbean as policies and legislation either predate ideas of urban sustainability, or do not target sustainability challenges adequately. The paper is part of a larger research project on sustainable urbanization in the Caribbean and therefore is intended to initiate debate and further research towards production of policy relevant information in this area of study.
References
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Bower, J., & Buckley, R. (2020). Housing policies in Rwanda: Riding the urbanization whirlwind. Policy Paper. January 2020. International Growth Centre. London School of Economics and Political Science. London. Retrieved from https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Bower-and-Buckley-2020-Policy-Paper.pdf
Bredenoord, J., & Montiel, L. C. (2014). Affordable housing for low-income groups in Mexico and urban housing challenges of today. In J. Bredenoord, P. van Lindert & P. Smets (Eds.). Affordable Housing in the Urban Global South; Seeking Sustainable Solutions. Pp 223-240. London & New York: Earthscan, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315849539
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Burnett, V. (2014). They Built It. People Came. Now They Go. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/09/world/americas/they-built-it-people-came-now-they-go.html
de Jong, M., Joss, S., Schraven, D., Zhan, C., & Weijnen, M. (2015). Sustainable–smart–resilient–low carbon–eco– knowledge cities; making sense of a multitude of concepts promoting sustainable urbanization. Journal of Cleaner Production, 109, 25-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.02.004
Dempsey, N., Bramley, G., Power, S., & Brown, C. (2011). The social dimension of sustainable development: Defining urban social sustainability. Sustainable Development, 19(5), 289-300. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.417
Droege, P. (Ed.). (2018). Urban Energy Transition: Renewable Strategies for Cities and Regions (2nd Ed). Elsevier.
Elkington, J. (1997). Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone. https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.3310080106
Ericsson, E., & Lindberg, A. (2018). Development opportunities in the land management process in Rwanda: In order to archive a more effective and efficient land use. Bachelor’s thesis. University of Gävle. Sweden. Retrieved from https://www.diva-ortal.org/smash/get/diva2:1228067/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Giovannoni, E., & Fabietti, G. (2013). What is sustainability? A review of the concept and its applications. Integrated reporting: Concepts and cases that redefine corporate accountability, 21-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02168-3_2
Haggard, S. (2000). Interests, Institutions, and Policy Reform. In Anne O. Krueger (Ed.), Economic Policy Reform: The Second Stage (pp 21-59). Chicago & London: Chicago University Press.
Hassan, A.M., Lee, H. (2015). The paradox of the sustainable city: definitions and examples. Environment Development and Sustainability, 17(6), 1267–1285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9604-z
Hodgson, G. M. (2006). What Are Institutions? Journal of Economic Issues, 40(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00213624.2006.11506879
Hussein, A., & Pollock, E. (2019). Sustainable Development approaches in Egypt. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 297 012027. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/297/1/012027
Jepson, E. J., Jr. (2004). Human Nature and Sustainable Development: A Strategic Challenge for Planners. Journal of Planning Literature, 19(1), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412204264529
Keles, R. (2001). Sustainable urbanization and its policy implications. The case of Turkey. In D. Camarda & L. Grassini (Eds.) Interdependency between agriculture and urbanization: Conflicts on sustainable use of soil and water. Bari: CIHEAM, 119-135. Options Méditerranéennes: Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens; n. 44. Retrieved from https://om.ciheam.org/om/pdf/a44/02001592.pdf
Kiamba, A. (2012). The Sustainability of Urban Development in Developing Economies. Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development, 8(1), 20-25.
Kim, Y., & Zangerling, B. (Eds.) (2016). Mexico Urbanization Review: Managing Spatial Growth for Productive and Livable Cities in Mexico. Directions in Development – Countries and Regions. Washington D.C.: World Bank Publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0916-3_es
Kitchin, R. (2014). The real-time city? Big data and smart urbanism. GeoJournal, 79(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-013-9516-8
Koglin, T. (2009). Sustainable development in general and urban context: a literature review. (Bulletin 248 / 3000; Vol. Bulletin 248 / 3000) (pp. 8-12). Lund University Faculty of Engineering, Technology and Society, Traffic and Roads, Lund, Sweden. Retrieved from https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/ws/files/3454091/1516036.pdf
Lehmann, S. (Ed). (2010). The Principles of Green Urbanism: Transforming the City for Sustainability. London: Routledge.
Lewis, A., & Abdellah, M. (2021). Egypt prepares to start move to new capital, away from the chaos of Cairo. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/
Leyer, R. V. (2015). The Development of Housing in Mexico: A Welfare Regime Approach. Social Policy and Society, 14(4), 523-539. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474746414000591
Li, L. H. (2017). Balancing Rural and Urban Development: Applying Coordinated Urban–Rural Development (CURD) Strategy to Achieve Sustainable Urbanisation in China. Sustainability, 9(11), 1948. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9111948
Lindfield, M., & Steinberg, F. (2012). Green cities. Mandaluyong City, Phillipines: Asian Development Bank. Retrieved from https://www.adb.org/
Mexico, SEMARNAT. (2011). Sustainable Housing in Mexico. Retrieved from https://www.conavi.gob.mx/
Michalina, D., Mederly, P., Diefenbacher, H., & Held, B. (2021). Sustainable urban development: A review of urban sustainability indicator frameworks. Sustainability, 13(16), 9348. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169348
Munier, N. (2005). Introduction to Sustainability: Road to a Better Future. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
Murray, S. (2014/5). Emerging Policy Discussions from the National Forum for Sustainable Urbanization in Support of EDPRS2. Kigali, Rwanda. Draft. International Growth Centre The London School of Economics and Political Science Retrieved from https://www.theigc.org/
Muvunyi, S. (2016). All districts to construct model urban community settlements. The New Times. Retrieved from https://www.newtimes.co.rw/
North, D. C. (1991). Institutions. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.5.1.97
OECD/Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia. (2018). SME Policy Index: ASEAN 2018: Boosting Competitiveness and Inclusive Growth, OECD Publishing, Paris/Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, Jakarta. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264305328-12-en
Piro, G., Cianci, I., Grieco, L. A., Boggia, G., & Camarda, P. (2014). Information centric services in smart cities. Journal of Systems and Software, 88, 169-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2013.10.029
Purvis, B., Mao, Y., & Robinson, D. (2019). Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins. Sustainability Science, 14, 681–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5
Ranhagen, U., & Groth, K. (2021). The Symbiocity Approach: A Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Urban Development. Stockholm: SKL International.
Rapoport, E., & Vernay, A. (2014). Defining the eco-city: A discursive approach. In Joss, S. (Ed.), International Eco-Cities Initiative Reflections Series, Issue 3. University of Westminster.
Rode, P., & Burdett, R. (2011). Cities: investing in energy and resource efficiency. United Nations Environment Programme, (Corp. Ed.), Towards a green economy: pathways to sustainable development and poverty eradication. United Nations Environment Programme 453-492.
Rose, R. (1993). Lesson-Drawing in Public Policy. New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers.
Roy, M. (2009). Planning for sustainable urbanisation in fast growing cities: Mitigation and adaptation issues addressed in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Habitat International, 33(3), 276-286. Rwanda. Kigali City Masterplan 2050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2008.10.022
Salim, R. A., Rafiq, S., & Shafiei, S. (2017). Urbanization, energy consumption, and pollutant emission in Asian developing economies: an empirical analysis (No. 718). ADBI Working Paper.
Saraswat, A., Pipralia, S., & Kumar, A. (2022). Sustainable urbanisation: An ecosystems approach towards future cities.
Sastry, G. S. (2009). A model for sustainable urbanisation: the case of Karnataka. Journal of Social and Economic Development, 11(2), 17-45
Scoones, I. (2007). Sustainability. Development in practice, 17(4-5), 589-596. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614520701469609
Serag, Y. (2017). The New Administrative Capital of Egypt a Critical Review from the Regional (November 24, 2017). 1st International Conference on Towards a Better Quality of Life. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3162316
Shannon, M., Otsuki, K., Zoomers, A., & Kaag, M. (2018). Sustainable Urbanization on Occupied Land? The Politics of Infrastructure Development and Resettlement in Beira City. Mozambique. Sustainability, 10(9), 3123. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093123
The National (2015. A new Cairo must lead to a new Egypt. Retrieved March 15, 2015 from https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/
The New Economy (2013. Infonavit’s contribution to private housing development. Retrieved April 4, 2013 from https://www.theneweconomy.com/strategy/
UNEP (2011). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication. A Synthesis for Policy Makers. unep.org/
UN-HABITAT. (2010). State of the World's Cities 2010/2011- Cities for All: Bridging the Urban Divide. London: Earthscan. unhabitat.org/. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849774864
Ward, B. E., & Dubos, R. (1972). Only one earth: the care and maintenance of a small planet. An Unofficial Report Commissioned by the Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. Penguin.
Wheeler, S. & Beatley, T. (2014). Sustainable Urban Development Reader (3rd Ed). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315770369
Wheeler, S. (1996). Sustainable urban development: A literature review and analysis. University of California at Berkeley, Institute of Urban and Regional Development.
Wilkinson, A., Hill, M., & Gollan, P. (2001). The sustainability debate. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 21(12), 1492-1502. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570110410865
World Bank Group & Government of Rwanda. (2020). Future Drivers of Growth in Rwanda: Innovation, Integration, Agglomeration, and Competition. Washington, DC: World Bank. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30732 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
World Bank. (2013). Cairo Traffic Congestion Study: Final Report. Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/18735 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
Zegras, P. C., Poduje, I., Foutz, W., Ben-Joseph, E., & Figueroa, O. (2004). Indicators for sustainable urban development. From Understanding to Action: Sustainable Urban Development in Medium-Sized Citie in Africa and Latin A merica, 157-189. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-2921-9_6
Zhu, J., Xu, Q., Pan, Y., Qiu, L., Peng, Y., & Bao, H. (2018). Land-Acquisition and Resettlement (LAR) Conflicts: A Perspective of Spatial Injustice of Urban Public Resources Allocation. Sustainability, 10(3), 884. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10030884
Allen, A., & You, N. (2002). Sustainable Urbanization: Bridging the Green and Brown Agendas. UN-HABITAT and The Development Planning Unit, University College London. London.
Bajpai, J. (2014). The Role of the Government in Sustaining Mobility and Accessibility in Rwanda. Working Paper, June 2014. International Growth Centre. London School of Economics and Political Science. London. Retrieved from https://www.theigc.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/08/Bajpai-2014.pdf
Barton, H. (2000). Sustainable Communities: The Potential for Eco-Neighbourhoods. Routledge.
Biruta, V. (2016). Five ways Rwanda is leading on green growth. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org
Blair, J., Prasad, D., & Zehner, R. (2005). Triple Bottom Line Assessment and Sustainability: A Method of Performance Evaluation. The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo). Retrieved from https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB4097.pdf
Bower, J., & Buckley, R. (2020). Housing policies in Rwanda: Riding the urbanization whirlwind. Policy Paper. January 2020. International Growth Centre. London School of Economics and Political Science. London. Retrieved from https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Bower-and-Buckley-2020-Policy-Paper.pdf
Bredenoord, J., & Montiel, L. C. (2014). Affordable housing for low-income groups in Mexico and urban housing challenges of today. In J. Bredenoord, P. van Lindert & P. Smets (Eds.). Affordable Housing in the Urban Global South; Seeking Sustainable Solutions. Pp 223-240. London & New York: Earthscan, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315849539
Brundtland Commission. (1987). Our Common Future. United Nations: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf
Burnett, V. (2014). They Built It. People Came. Now They Go. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/09/world/americas/they-built-it-people-came-now-they-go.html
de Jong, M., Joss, S., Schraven, D., Zhan, C., & Weijnen, M. (2015). Sustainable–smart–resilient–low carbon–eco– knowledge cities; making sense of a multitude of concepts promoting sustainable urbanization. Journal of Cleaner Production, 109, 25-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.02.004
Dempsey, N., Bramley, G., Power, S., & Brown, C. (2011). The social dimension of sustainable development: Defining urban social sustainability. Sustainable Development, 19(5), 289-300. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.417
Droege, P. (Ed.). (2018). Urban Energy Transition: Renewable Strategies for Cities and Regions (2nd Ed). Elsevier.
Elkington, J. (1997). Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone. https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.3310080106
Ericsson, E., & Lindberg, A. (2018). Development opportunities in the land management process in Rwanda: In order to archive a more effective and efficient land use. Bachelor’s thesis. University of Gävle. Sweden. Retrieved from https://www.diva-ortal.org/smash/get/diva2:1228067/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Giovannoni, E., & Fabietti, G. (2013). What is sustainability? A review of the concept and its applications. Integrated reporting: Concepts and cases that redefine corporate accountability, 21-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02168-3_2
Haggard, S. (2000). Interests, Institutions, and Policy Reform. In Anne O. Krueger (Ed.), Economic Policy Reform: The Second Stage (pp 21-59). Chicago & London: Chicago University Press.
Hassan, A.M., Lee, H. (2015). The paradox of the sustainable city: definitions and examples. Environment Development and Sustainability, 17(6), 1267–1285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9604-z
Hodgson, G. M. (2006). What Are Institutions? Journal of Economic Issues, 40(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00213624.2006.11506879
Hussein, A., & Pollock, E. (2019). Sustainable Development approaches in Egypt. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 297 012027. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/297/1/012027
Jepson, E. J., Jr. (2004). Human Nature and Sustainable Development: A Strategic Challenge for Planners. Journal of Planning Literature, 19(1), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412204264529
Keles, R. (2001). Sustainable urbanization and its policy implications. The case of Turkey. In D. Camarda & L. Grassini (Eds.) Interdependency between agriculture and urbanization: Conflicts on sustainable use of soil and water. Bari: CIHEAM, 119-135. Options Méditerranéennes: Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens; n. 44. Retrieved from https://om.ciheam.org/om/pdf/a44/02001592.pdf
Kiamba, A. (2012). The Sustainability of Urban Development in Developing Economies. Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development, 8(1), 20-25.
Kim, Y., & Zangerling, B. (Eds.) (2016). Mexico Urbanization Review: Managing Spatial Growth for Productive and Livable Cities in Mexico. Directions in Development – Countries and Regions. Washington D.C.: World Bank Publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0916-3_es
Kitchin, R. (2014). The real-time city? Big data and smart urbanism. GeoJournal, 79(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-013-9516-8
Koglin, T. (2009). Sustainable development in general and urban context: a literature review. (Bulletin 248 / 3000; Vol. Bulletin 248 / 3000) (pp. 8-12). Lund University Faculty of Engineering, Technology and Society, Traffic and Roads, Lund, Sweden. Retrieved from https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/ws/files/3454091/1516036.pdf
Lehmann, S. (Ed). (2010). The Principles of Green Urbanism: Transforming the City for Sustainability. London: Routledge.
Lewis, A., & Abdellah, M. (2021). Egypt prepares to start move to new capital, away from the chaos of Cairo. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/
Leyer, R. V. (2015). The Development of Housing in Mexico: A Welfare Regime Approach. Social Policy and Society, 14(4), 523-539. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474746414000591
Li, L. H. (2017). Balancing Rural and Urban Development: Applying Coordinated Urban–Rural Development (CURD) Strategy to Achieve Sustainable Urbanisation in China. Sustainability, 9(11), 1948. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9111948
Lindfield, M., & Steinberg, F. (2012). Green cities. Mandaluyong City, Phillipines: Asian Development Bank. Retrieved from https://www.adb.org/
Mexico, SEMARNAT. (2011). Sustainable Housing in Mexico. Retrieved from https://www.conavi.gob.mx/
Michalina, D., Mederly, P., Diefenbacher, H., & Held, B. (2021). Sustainable urban development: A review of urban sustainability indicator frameworks. Sustainability, 13(16), 9348. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169348
Munier, N. (2005). Introduction to Sustainability: Road to a Better Future. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
Murray, S. (2014/5). Emerging Policy Discussions from the National Forum for Sustainable Urbanization in Support of EDPRS2. Kigali, Rwanda. Draft. International Growth Centre The London School of Economics and Political Science Retrieved from https://www.theigc.org/
Muvunyi, S. (2016). All districts to construct model urban community settlements. The New Times. Retrieved from https://www.newtimes.co.rw/
North, D. C. (1991). Institutions. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.5.1.97
OECD/Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia. (2018). SME Policy Index: ASEAN 2018: Boosting Competitiveness and Inclusive Growth, OECD Publishing, Paris/Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, Jakarta. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264305328-12-en
Piro, G., Cianci, I., Grieco, L. A., Boggia, G., & Camarda, P. (2014). Information centric services in smart cities. Journal of Systems and Software, 88, 169-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2013.10.029
Purvis, B., Mao, Y., & Robinson, D. (2019). Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins. Sustainability Science, 14, 681–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5
Ranhagen, U., & Groth, K. (2021). The Symbiocity Approach: A Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Urban Development. Stockholm: SKL International.
Rapoport, E., & Vernay, A. (2014). Defining the eco-city: A discursive approach. In Joss, S. (Ed.), International Eco-Cities Initiative Reflections Series, Issue 3. University of Westminster.
Rode, P., & Burdett, R. (2011). Cities: investing in energy and resource efficiency. United Nations Environment Programme, (Corp. Ed.), Towards a green economy: pathways to sustainable development and poverty eradication. United Nations Environment Programme 453-492.
Rose, R. (1993). Lesson-Drawing in Public Policy. New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers.
Roy, M. (2009). Planning for sustainable urbanisation in fast growing cities: Mitigation and adaptation issues addressed in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Habitat International, 33(3), 276-286. Rwanda. Kigali City Masterplan 2050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2008.10.022
Salim, R. A., Rafiq, S., & Shafiei, S. (2017). Urbanization, energy consumption, and pollutant emission in Asian developing economies: an empirical analysis (No. 718). ADBI Working Paper.
Saraswat, A., Pipralia, S., & Kumar, A. (2022). Sustainable urbanisation: An ecosystems approach towards future cities.
Sastry, G. S. (2009). A model for sustainable urbanisation: the case of Karnataka. Journal of Social and Economic Development, 11(2), 17-45
Scoones, I. (2007). Sustainability. Development in practice, 17(4-5), 589-596. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614520701469609
Serag, Y. (2017). The New Administrative Capital of Egypt a Critical Review from the Regional (November 24, 2017). 1st International Conference on Towards a Better Quality of Life. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3162316
Shannon, M., Otsuki, K., Zoomers, A., & Kaag, M. (2018). Sustainable Urbanization on Occupied Land? The Politics of Infrastructure Development and Resettlement in Beira City. Mozambique. Sustainability, 10(9), 3123. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093123
The National (2015. A new Cairo must lead to a new Egypt. Retrieved March 15, 2015 from https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/
The New Economy (2013. Infonavit’s contribution to private housing development. Retrieved April 4, 2013 from https://www.theneweconomy.com/strategy/
UNEP (2011). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication. A Synthesis for Policy Makers. unep.org/
UN-HABITAT. (2010). State of the World's Cities 2010/2011- Cities for All: Bridging the Urban Divide. London: Earthscan. unhabitat.org/. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849774864
Ward, B. E., & Dubos, R. (1972). Only one earth: the care and maintenance of a small planet. An Unofficial Report Commissioned by the Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. Penguin.
Wheeler, S. & Beatley, T. (2014). Sustainable Urban Development Reader (3rd Ed). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315770369
Wheeler, S. (1996). Sustainable urban development: A literature review and analysis. University of California at Berkeley, Institute of Urban and Regional Development.
Wilkinson, A., Hill, M., & Gollan, P. (2001). The sustainability debate. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 21(12), 1492-1502. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570110410865
World Bank Group & Government of Rwanda. (2020). Future Drivers of Growth in Rwanda: Innovation, Integration, Agglomeration, and Competition. Washington, DC: World Bank. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30732 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
World Bank. (2013). Cairo Traffic Congestion Study: Final Report. Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/18735 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
Zegras, P. C., Poduje, I., Foutz, W., Ben-Joseph, E., & Figueroa, O. (2004). Indicators for sustainable urban development. From Understanding to Action: Sustainable Urban Development in Medium-Sized Citie in Africa and Latin A merica, 157-189. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-2921-9_6
Zhu, J., Xu, Q., Pan, Y., Qiu, L., Peng, Y., & Bao, H. (2018). Land-Acquisition and Resettlement (LAR) Conflicts: A Perspective of Spatial Injustice of Urban Public Resources Allocation. Sustainability, 10(3), 884. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10030884
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2023-04-02
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