A Pragma-Stylistic Study of Implicature in Shakespeare's Hamlet and Twelfth Night
Keywords:
Implicature, Hamlet, Twelfth Night
Abstract
Implicature is commonly defined as the dissimilarity between what is said and what is meant. The variance lies between the conspicuous meaning of written and spoken words and the meaning that lies beneath what is said. This study aims at analyzing and discussing Shakespeare's Hamlet and Twelfth Night in terms of generalized and particularized conversational and conventional implicature. The model used in the analysis is coined from a variety of pragmatic theories, implicature, Grice's maxims, irony, indirect speech acts, context, and hedges. It is hypothesized that the number of implicature cases in Twelfth Night is bigger than that in Hamlet, generation of implicatures by the characters in the two plays is highly determined by social factors, Hamlet and Cesario use implicature more than other characters, the most used implicature is the particularized one, the purpose of using implicatures differs in the plays, implicature is generated from flouting Grice's maxims and most implicatures are made by violating the relation maxim. The study concludes that the implications in Hamlet are more than those in Twelfth Night, that Shakespeare uses two implicatures generalized and particularized, and that Implicature in Hamlet and Twelfth Night is generated mostly by violating the maxims of quality. As for the least flouted maxim in the two plays is the maxim of quantity.
References
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Betti, Mohammed J., & Igaab, Z. K. (2018). A Contrastive Study of Modulation in English and Arabic. International Journal of English and Cultural Studies, 1(1), 30-45. https://doi.org/10.11114/ijecs.v1i1.3120
Betti, Mohammed J., Igaab, Z. K., & Al-Ghizzi, M. T. H. (2018). The Iraqi EFL Learners’ Use of Permission, Obligation and Prohibition. International Journal of English Linguistics, 8(3), 251-269. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n3p251
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Feng, G. (2010). A Theory of Conventional Implicature and Pragmatic Markers in Chinese. London: Emerald. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004253179
Fischer, G., & Greiner, B. (2007). The Play Within The Play: The Performance of Meta-Theatre and Self Reflection. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401204842
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Grundy, P. (2000). Doing Pragmatics (2nd ed.). London: Arnold Publishing.
Halliday, M., & Hasan, R. (1989). Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Huang, Y. (2007). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Huang, Y. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hyland, K. (1998). Hedging in Scientific Research Articles. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.54
Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010). A Contrastive Study of Metathesis in English and Arabic. Wasit: Journal of College of Education, 1(7), 152-172.
Igaab, Z. K. (2015). Apposition in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. University of Thi-Qar, College of Education for Humanities, 5(4), 110-143.
Igaab, Z. K., & Al-Manhalawey, M. S. O.(2010). Case in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. Journal of University of Thi-Qar, College of Arts, 1(1), 1-54.
Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Tarrad, Intisar Raham (2019). Pronouns in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and Literature Studies, 9(1), 53-69. https://doi.org/10.5539/ells.v9n1p53
Kenesei, I., & Harnish, R. (2001). Perspectives on Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.90
Khosravizadeh, P., & Sadehvandi, N. (2011). Some Instances of Violation and Flouting of the Maxims of Quantity by the Main Characters (Barry and Tim) in Dinner for Schmucks. International Conference on Language, Literature, and Linguistics, 26, 122-127.
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Kranich, S. (2016). Contrastive Pragmatics and Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.261
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Leech, G. (2008). Language in Literature: Style and Foregrounding. New York: Routledge.
Leech, G. (2014). The Pragmatics of Politeness. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195341386.001.0001
Leung, S. (2002). Language and Meaning in Human Perspective. London: England.
Levinson, S. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813313
Li, Q. (2015). The Application of the Cooperative Principle on Oral English Teaching. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature, 3, 39-48.
McCready, E. (2015). Reliability in Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198702832.001.0001
Meibauer, J. (2012). What is a Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/la.196.04mei
Mey, J. (2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(00)00016-3
Mufwene, S., Francis, E., & Wheeler, R. (2005). Polymorphous Linguistics. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
O'grady, W., & Archibald, J. (2016). Contemporary Linguistic Analysis. Pearson Learning Solutions.
O'keeffe, A. Clancy, B. and Adolphs, S. (2011). Introducing Pragmatics in Use. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203830949
Paltridge, B. (2012). Discourse Analysis (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Bloomsbury.
Pollock, J. (2020). The Architecture of Context and Context-Sensitivity: Perspectives from Philosophy, Linguistics and Logic. Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34485-6_13
Ricoeur, P. (1977). The Rule of Metaphor: The Creation of Meaning in Language. New York: University of Toronto Press.
Riemer, N. (2010). Introductory Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808883
Saeed, J. (2016). Semantics (4th ed). New Delhi: Wiley Blackwell.
Salman, H. S., & Betti, Mohammed J. (2020). Politeness and Face Threatening Acts in Iraqi EFL learners’ Conversations. GLOSSA, 3(8), 221-233.
Schiffer, S. (1972). Meaning. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Schmitz, H. (2008). Accentuation and Interpretation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230592568
Searl, J. (1977). The Philosophy of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Searl, J. (1979). Expression and Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511609213
Senfit, G. (2014). Understanding Pragmatics. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203776476
Sibsa, M. and Ken, T. (2013). Introduction in Pragmatics of Speech Actions. Berlin/ Boston: Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214383
Stalnaker, R. (2014). Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199645169.001.0001
Strassler, J. (1982). Idioms in English: A Pragmatic Analysis. Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.
Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. Longman.
Verdonk, P. (2013). The Stylistics of Poetry: Context, Cognition, Discourse, History. Bloonsbury Publishing PLC.
Widdowson, H. (2004). Text, Context, Pretext: Critical Issues in Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470758427
Wiegandt, K. (2004). Theories of Irony. Norderstedt: Grin Verlag.
Wilson, D., & Sperber, D. (2012). Meaning and Relevance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139028370
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yule, G. (2020). The study of Language (7th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zufferey, S., Moeschler, J., & Reboul, A. (2019). Implicature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316410875
Algburi, B. Y. J., & Zainab, K. I. (2021). Defamation in English and Arabic: A Pragmatic Contrastive Study. International Linguistics Research, 4(2), 31-45. https://doi.org/10.30560/ilr.v4n2p31
Allan, K. (1989). Linguistic Meaning. Vol. 1. London and New York: Routledge.
Al-Seady, M. J. B. (1998). Comparative Education: Some Basic Contributions of Islamic Education to Western Educational Thought. Al-Qadisiya Journal, 3(2), 82-89.
Al-Seady, M. J. B., & Mohammed, K. A. Al-Sehlani (2002). Collocation in Three Texts of the Absurd: A Stylistic Comparative Cohesive Study. Journal of Al-Qadisiya for Educational Sciences, 3(2), 34-44.
Al-Sheikh, Z. K. (2006a). Iraqi EFL Performance in using evidentiality. Journal of University of Thi-Qar, 2(3), 68-86.
Al-Sheikh, Z. K. (2006b). The Ability of Iraqi Undergraduates to Recognize and Produce Confusing Words in English. Journal of University of Thi-Qar, 2(3), 68-85.
Ariel, M. (2008). Pragmatics and Grammar. Cambridge: CUP. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511791314
Bahrami, A. (1999). A Dictionary of Discourse Analysis. Tehran: Rahnama.
Barbe, K. (1995). Irony in Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamine. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.34
Betti, Mohammed J. (2013). A Literary Analysis of Ten Plays. Diwaniya: Nippur.
Betti, M. (2015). An Introduction to Drama. Diwaniya: Dar Nippur.
Betti, M. J., & Mirdas, S. A. (2016). A Stylistic Study of Irony in Shakespeare's Hamlet and Ben Johnson's Volpone. Unpublished MA Thesis, College of Education, University of Thi-Qar.
Betti, Mohammed J. (2002). A Literary Analysis of Shakespeare's Hamlet and Twelfth Night, and Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer. Nasiriya : Afaaq.
Betti, Mohammed J., & Igaab, Z. K. (2018). A Contrastive Study of Modulation in English and Arabic. International Journal of English and Cultural Studies, 1(1), 30-45. https://doi.org/10.11114/ijecs.v1i1.3120
Betti, Mohammed J., Igaab, Z. K., & Al-Ghizzi, M. T. H. (2018). The Iraqi EFL Learners’ Use of Permission, Obligation and Prohibition. International Journal of English Linguistics, 8(3), 251-269. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n3p251
Betti, Mohammed J., & Yaseen, K. S. (2020). The Iraqi EFL Learners’ Use of Conversational Maxims at the University Level. Education, Language and Sociology Research, 1(1), 43-60. https://doi.org/10.22158/elsr.v1n1p43
Betti, Mohammed J., & Hasan, A. A. (2020). The Iraqi EFL Learners’ Ability to Use Speech Acts in MA and Ph.D. Theses Defense. Education, Language and Sociology Research, 1(2), 41-65. https://doi.org/10.22158/elsr.v1n2p41
Bianchi, C. (2013). Implicating. In Sibsa, m. and Turner, K. (Eds). Pragmatics of Speech Actions. Berlin: Gruyter Mouton.
Birner, B. (2013). Introduction to Pragmatics. Oxford: Wily Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.7202/1017210ar
Black, E. (2006). Pragmatic Stylistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Blackwell, S. (2003). Implicatures in Discourse: The Case of Spanish Anaphora. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.105
Borjesson, K. (2014). The Semantics-Pragmatics Controversy. Boston: Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110333411
Bousfield, D. (2008). Impoliteness in Interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.167
Burke, M. (2014). The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics. Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group.
Carston, R. (2002). Thoughts and Utterances: The Pragmatics of Explicit Communication. Oxford: Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470754603
Chapman, S. (2005). Paul Grice, Philosopher and Linguist. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230005853
Clark, D. (2001). Context, Cognition, and defeaness. Gallaudent: Gallaudent University Press.
Collavin, E. (2011). Foundations of Pragmatics. Berlin/ Boston: Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214260.373
Cruse, A. (2006). A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Curzan, A., & Adams, M. (2012). How English Works: A Linguistic Introductory (3rd ed.). London: Longman.
Cutting, J. (2002). Pragmatics and Discourse: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
Feng, G. (2010). A Theory of Conventional Implicature and Pragmatic Markers in Chinese. London: Emerald. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004253179
Fischer, G., & Greiner, B. (2007). The Play Within The Play: The Performance of Meta-Theatre and Self Reflection. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401204842
Fraser, B. (2010). New Approaches to Hedging. Britain: Emerald Group.
Gazdar, G. (1979). Pragmatics: Implicatures, Presupposition, and Logical Form. New York: Academic Press.
Geurts, B. (2010). Quantity Implicatures. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511975158
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and Semantics: Speech Acts., 3, 41-58. London: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_003
Griffiths, P. (2006). An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Grundy, P. (2000). Doing Pragmatics (2nd ed.). London: Arnold Publishing.
Halliday, M., & Hasan, R. (1989). Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hebron, M. (2004). Mastering the Language of Literature. London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-06380-9
Huang, Y. (2007). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Huang, Y. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hyland, K. (1998). Hedging in Scientific Research Articles. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.54
Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010). A Contrastive Study of Metathesis in English and Arabic. Wasit: Journal of College of Education, 1(7), 152-172.
Igaab, Z. K. (2015). Apposition in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. University of Thi-Qar, College of Education for Humanities, 5(4), 110-143.
Igaab, Z. K., & Al-Manhalawey, M. S. O.(2010). Case in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. Journal of University of Thi-Qar, College of Arts, 1(1), 1-54.
Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Tarrad, Intisar Raham (2019). Pronouns in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and Literature Studies, 9(1), 53-69. https://doi.org/10.5539/ells.v9n1p53
Kenesei, I., & Harnish, R. (2001). Perspectives on Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.90
Khosravizadeh, P., & Sadehvandi, N. (2011). Some Instances of Violation and Flouting of the Maxims of Quantity by the Main Characters (Barry and Tim) in Dinner for Schmucks. International Conference on Language, Literature, and Linguistics, 26, 122-127.
Kortmann, B. (2020). English Linguistics: Essentials (2nd ed.). Freiburg: J. B. Metzler Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05678-8
Kranich, S. (2016). Contrastive Pragmatics and Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.261
Kroeger, P. (2018). Analyzing Meaning: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. Berlin: Freie University.
Kroeger, P. (2019). Analysing Meaning: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics (2nd ed). Berlin: Language Science Press.
Lamb, S. (2000). Cliffs complete Shakespeare's Hamlet. New York: Hungry Minds.
Lamb, S. (2000). Cliffs Complete Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. New York: Hungry Minds.
Leech, G. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman.
Leech, G. (2008). Language in Literature: Style and Foregrounding. New York: Routledge.
Leech, G. (2014). The Pragmatics of Politeness. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195341386.001.0001
Leung, S. (2002). Language and Meaning in Human Perspective. London: England.
Levinson, S. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813313
Li, Q. (2015). The Application of the Cooperative Principle on Oral English Teaching. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature, 3, 39-48.
McCready, E. (2015). Reliability in Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198702832.001.0001
Meibauer, J. (2012). What is a Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. https://doi.org/10.1075/la.196.04mei
Mey, J. (2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(00)00016-3
Mufwene, S., Francis, E., & Wheeler, R. (2005). Polymorphous Linguistics. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
O'grady, W., & Archibald, J. (2016). Contemporary Linguistic Analysis. Pearson Learning Solutions.
O'keeffe, A. Clancy, B. and Adolphs, S. (2011). Introducing Pragmatics in Use. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203830949
Paltridge, B. (2012). Discourse Analysis (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Bloomsbury.
Pollock, J. (2020). The Architecture of Context and Context-Sensitivity: Perspectives from Philosophy, Linguistics and Logic. Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34485-6_13
Ricoeur, P. (1977). The Rule of Metaphor: The Creation of Meaning in Language. New York: University of Toronto Press.
Riemer, N. (2010). Introductory Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808883
Saeed, J. (2016). Semantics (4th ed). New Delhi: Wiley Blackwell.
Salman, H. S., & Betti, Mohammed J. (2020). Politeness and Face Threatening Acts in Iraqi EFL learners’ Conversations. GLOSSA, 3(8), 221-233.
Schiffer, S. (1972). Meaning. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Schmitz, H. (2008). Accentuation and Interpretation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230592568
Searl, J. (1977). The Philosophy of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Searl, J. (1979). Expression and Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511609213
Senfit, G. (2014). Understanding Pragmatics. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203776476
Sibsa, M. and Ken, T. (2013). Introduction in Pragmatics of Speech Actions. Berlin/ Boston: Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110214383
Stalnaker, R. (2014). Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199645169.001.0001
Strassler, J. (1982). Idioms in English: A Pragmatic Analysis. Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.
Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. Longman.
Verdonk, P. (2013). The Stylistics of Poetry: Context, Cognition, Discourse, History. Bloonsbury Publishing PLC.
Widdowson, H. (2004). Text, Context, Pretext: Critical Issues in Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470758427
Wiegandt, K. (2004). Theories of Irony. Norderstedt: Grin Verlag.
Wilson, D., & Sperber, D. (2012). Meaning and Relevance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139028370
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yule, G. (2020). The study of Language (7th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zufferey, S., Moeschler, J., & Reboul, A. (2019). Implicature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316410875
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2021-09-02
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