Index of Independence
Keywords:
study design, study type, measuring technique, publication bias
Abstract
Objective. Under certain circumstances, the results of multiple investigations – particularly, rigorously-designed trials, can be summarized by systematic reviews and meta-analyses. However, the results of properly conducted meta-analyses can but need not be stronger than single investigations, if (publication) bias is not considered to a necessary extent.
Methods. In assessing the significance of publication bias due to study design simple to handle statistical measures for quantifying publication bias are developed and discussed which can be used as a characteristic of a meta-analysis. In addition, these measures may permit comparisons of publication biases between different meta-analyses.
Results. Various properties and the performance of the new measures of publication bias are studied and illustrated using simulations and clearly described thought experiments. As a result, individual studies can be reviewed with a higher degree of certainty.
Conclusions. Publication bias due to study design is a serious problem in scientific research, which can affect the validity and generalization of conclusions. The index of unfairness and the index of independence are of use to quantify publication bias and to improve the quality of systematic reviews and meta-analyses.
References
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Barukčić, I. (2009b). Causality II. A theory of energy, time and space (5. ed., 13. rev).
Barukčić, I. (2011a). Anti Heisenberg-Refutation Of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Relation: In: ADVANCES IN QUANTUM THEORY: Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Quantum Theory, Växjö, (Sweden), 14-17 June 2010. In American Institute of Physics - Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1327, pp. 322–325). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3567453
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Barukčić, I. (2012). Anti-Bell - Refutation of Bell’s theorem: In: Quantum Theory: Reconsideration of Foundations-6 (QTRF6), Växjö, (Sweden), 11-14 June 2012. In American Institute of Physics - Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1508, pp. 354-358). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4773147
Barukčić, I. (2016a). The Mathematical Formula of the Causal Relationship k. International Journal of Applied Physics and Mathematics, 6(2), 45-65. https://doi.org/10.17706/ijapm.2016.6.2.45-65
Barukčić, I. (2016b). The Physical Meaning of the Wave Function. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics, 4(6), 988-1023. https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2016.46106
Barukčić, I. (2016c). Unified Field Theory. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics, 4(8), 1379-1438. https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2016.48147
Barukčić, I. (2017a). Helicobacter pylori—The Cause of Human Gastric Cancer. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 5(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2017.52001
Barukčić, I. (2017b). Theoriae causalitatis principia mathematica. Norderstedt: Books on Demand.
Barukčić, I. (2018a). Epstein Bar Virus—The Cause of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 6(1), 75-100. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2018.61008
Barukčić, I. (2018b). Fusobacterium nucleatum—The Cause of Human Colorectal Cancer. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 6(3), 31-69. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2018.63004
Barukčić, I. (2018c). Gastric Cancer and Epstein-Barr Virus Infection. Modern Health Science, 1(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n2p1
Barukčić, I. (2018d). Helicobacter Pylori is the Cause of Gastric Cancer. Modern Health Science, 1(1), 43-50. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n1p43
Barukčić, I. (2018e). Human Cytomegalovirus is the Cause of Glioblastoma Multiforme. Modern Health Science, 1(2), 19. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n2p19
Barukčić, I. (2018f). Human Papillomavirus—The Cause of Human Cervical Cancer. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 6(4), 106–125. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2018.64009
Barukčić, I. (2018g). Mycobacterium Avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis: The Cause Of Crohn’s Disease. Modern Health Science, 1(1), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n1p19
Barukčić, I. (2018h). Epstein-Barr virus is the cause of multiple sclerosis. International Journal of Current Medical and Pharmaceutical Research, 4(9(A)), 3674-3682. http://dx.doi.org/10.24327/23956429.ijcmpr20180538
Barukčić, K., Barukčić, J. P., & Barukčić, I. (2018). Epstein-Barr virus is the cause of rheumatoid arthritis. Romanian Journal of Rheumatology, 27(4), 148-163.
Bernoulli, J. (1713). Ars conjectandi, Opus posthumus: Accedit Tractatus de seriebus infinitis ; et epistola Gallice scripta De Ludo Pilae Reticularis. Basileae (Basel, Suisse): Impensis Thurnisiorum [Tournes], fratrum. https://doi.org/10.3931/e-rara-9001
Bienaymé, I.-J. (1846). Sur les probabilités des erreurs d’après la méthode des moindres carrés. Journal De Mathématiques Pures Et Appliquées, 1(17), 33-78.
Bortkiewicz, L. (Ed.). (1898). Das Gesetz der kleinen Zahlen: [Transl. into English: The law of small numbers]. Leipzig (Germany): B.G. Teubner. Retrieved from https://ia802308.us.archive.org/33/items/dasgesetzderklei00bortrich/dasgesetzderklei00bortrich.pdf
Charan, J.,& Biswas, T. (2013). How to calculate sample size for different study designs in medical research? Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 35(121). https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7176.116232
Conover, W. J. (1974). Some Reasons for Not Using the Yates Continuity Correction on 2×2 Contingency Tables. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 69(346), 374-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1974.10482957
Cornfield, J. (1951). A method of estimating comparative rates from clinical data; applications to cancer of the lung, breast, and cervix. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 11(6), 1269-1275.
DeGroot, M. H., Schervish, M. J., Fang, X., Lu, L., & Li, D. (2005). Probability and Statistics (Third Edition [Rep. & arr. ed.]). Beijing (China): Higher Education Press.
Dorey, F. (2010). In Brief: The P Value: What Is It and What Does It Tell You? Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 468(8), 2297-2298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-010-1402-9
Edwards, A. W. F. (1963). The Measure of Association in a 2 × 2 Table. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General), 126(1), 109. https://doi.org/10.2307/2982448
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629-634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
Fisher, R. A. (1922). On the Interpretation of χ 2 from Contingency Tables, and the Calculation of P. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 85(1), 87. https://doi.org/10.2307/2340521
Fisher, R. A. (1935). The Logic of Inductive Inference. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 98(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.2307/2342435
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