Index of Unfairness
Keywords:
study design, study type, measuring technique, publication bias
Abstract
Objective. Objective scientific knowledge for many authors more valuable than true subjective belief is determined by research on primary data but a renewed analysis of already recorded or published data is common too. Ever since, an appropriate experimental or study design is an important and often a seriously underappreciated aspect of the informativeness and the scientific value of any (medical) study. The significance of study design for the reliability of the conclusions drawn and the ability to generalize the results from the sample investigated for the whole population cannot be underestimated. In contrast to an inappropriate statistical evaluation of a medical study, it is difficult to correct errors in study design after the study has been completed. Various mathematical aspects of study design are discussed in this article.
Methods. In assessing the significance of a fair study design of a medical study, important measures of publication bias are introduced. Methods of data or publication bias analysis in different types of studies are illustrated through examples with fictive data. Formal mathematical requirements of a fair study design which can and should be fulfilled carefully with regard to the planning or evaluation of medical research are developed.
Results. Various especially mathematical aspects of a fair study design are discussed in this article in detail. Depending on the particular question being asked, mathematical methods are developed which allow us to recognize data which are self-contradictory and to exclude these data from systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses. As a result, different individual studies can be summed up and evaluated with a higher degree of certainty.
Conclusions. This article is intended to give the reader guidance in evaluating the design of studies in medical research even ex post which should enable the reader to categorize medical studies better and to assess their scientific quality more accurately.
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Barukčić, I. (2005). Causality: New statistical methods. Norderstedt, Germany: Books on Demand GmbH.
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Barukčić, I. (2006b). New Method for Calculating Causal Relationships. Retrieved from http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/epidemiology/hanley/ibc2006program.pdf
Barukčić, I. (2009a). Causality I. A theory of energy, time and space (5. ed., 14. rev).
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Barukčić, I. (2011a). Anti Heisenberg-Refutation Of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Relation: In: ADVANCES IN QUANTUM THEORY: Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Quantum Theory, Växjö, (Sweden), 14-17 June 2010. In American Institute of Physics - Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1327, pp. 322–325). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3567453
Barukčić, I. (2011b). The Equivalence of Time and Gravitational Field. Physics Procedia, 22, 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2011.11.008
Barukčić, I. (2012). Anti-Bell - Refutation of Bell’s theorem: In: Quantum Theory: Reconsideration of Foundations-6 (QTRF6), Växjö, (Sweden), 11-14 June 2012. In American Institute of Physics - Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1508, pp. 354-358). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4773147
Barukčić, I. (2016a). The Mathematical Formula of the Causal Relationship k. International Journal of Applied Physics and Mathematics, 6(2), 45-65. https://doi.org/10.17706/ijapm.2016.6.2.45-65
Barukčić, I. (2016b). The Physical Meaning of the Wave Function. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics, 04(06), 988-1023. https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2016.46106
Barukčić, I. (2016c). Unified Field Theory. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics, 04(08), 1379–1438. https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2016.48147
Barukčić, I. (2017a). Helicobacter pylori—The Cause of Human Gastric Cancer. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 05(02), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2017.52001
Barukčić, I. (2017b). Theoriae causalitatis principia mathematica. Norderstedt: Books on Demand.
Barukčić, I. (2018a). Epstein Bar Virus—The Cause of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 06(01), 75–100. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2018.61008
Barukčić, I. (2018b). Fusobacterium nucleatum —The Cause of Human Colorectal Cancer. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 06(03), 31–69. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2018.63004
Barukčić, I. (2018c). Gastric Cancer and Epstein-Barr Virus Infection. Modern Health Science, 1(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n2p1
Barukčić, I. (2018d). Helicobacter Pylori is the Cause of Gastric Cancer. Modern Health Science, 1(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n1p43
Barukčić, I. (2018e). Human Cytomegalovirus is the Cause of Glioblastoma Multiforme. Modern Health Science, 1(2), 19. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n2p19
Barukčić, I. (2018f). Human Papillomavirus—The Cause of Human Cervical Cancer. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines, 06(04), 106–125. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2018.64009
Barukčić, I. (2018g). Mycobacterium Avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis: The Cause Of Crohn’s Disease. Modern Health Science, 1(1), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n1p19
Barukčić, I. (2018h). Epstein-Barr virus is the cause of multiple sclerosis. International Journal of Current Medical and Pharmaceutical Research, 4(9 (A)), 3674-3682. http://dx.doi.org/10.24327/23956429.ijcmpr20180538
Barukčić I. (2019). Smoking of tobacco is the cause of human lung cancer. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 9(1-s), 148-160. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v9i1-s.2273
Barukčić, K., Barukčić, J. P., & Barukčić, I. (2018). Epstein-Barr virus is the cause of rheumatoid arthritis. Romanian Journal of Rheumatology, 27(4), 148-163.
Bernoulli, J. (1713). Ars conjectandi, Opus posthumus: Accedit Tractatus de seriebus infinitis ; et epistola Gallice scripta De Ludo Pilae Reticularis. Basileae (Basel, Suisse): Impensis Thurnisiorum [Tournes], fratrum. https://doi.org/10.3931/e-rara-9001
Bienaymé, I.-J. (1846). Sur les probabilités des erreurs d’après la méthode des moindres carrés. Journal De Mathématiques Pures Et Appliquées, 1(17), 33-78. https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-de-mathematiques-pures-et-appliquees
Bortkiewicz, L. (Ed.). (1898). Das Gesetz der kleinen Zahlen: [Transl. into English: The law of small numbers]. Leipzig (Germany): B.G. Teubner. Retrieved from https://ia802308.us.archive.org/33/items/dasgesetzderklei00bortrich/dasgesetzderklei00bortrich.pdf
Charan J, Biswas T. How to calculate sample size for different study designs in medical research? Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine 2013;35:121. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7176.116232
Conover, W. J. (1974). Some Reasons for Not Using the Yates Continuity Correction on 2×2 Contingency Tables. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 69(346), 374-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1974.10482957
Cornfield, J. (1951). A method of estimating comparative rates from clinical data; applications to cancer of the lung, breast, and cervix. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 11(6), 1269-1275.
DeGroot, M. H., Schervish, M. J., Fang, X., Lu, L., & Li, D. (2005). Probability and Statistics (Third Edition [Rep. & arr. ed.]). Beijing (China): Higher Education Press.
Dorey, F. (2010). In Brief: The P Value: What Is It and What Does It Tell You? Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 468(8), 2297-2298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-010-1402-9
Edwards, A. W. F. (1963). The Measure of Association in a 2 × 2 Table. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General), 126(1), 109. https://doi.org/10.2307/2982448
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