The Trauma of Broad-Based Inclusion for Students with Autism
Keywords:
autism, inclusion, education, neurodevelopmental, trauma
Abstract
Inclusion is a model where students with disabilities spend most/all of their time in an educational setting with non-disabled students. This model has led many countries to pass laws requiring disabled students be educated in the least restrictive environment: they should be educated with students without disabilities to the maximum extent possible. However, this model ignores the very nature of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The autistic brain is different in both function and structure, making deficits in social interaction, inherent and appropriate for their development. This paper explores research on the autistic brain, comorbidities, child development, and trauma associated with forced inclusion for this population. Research on brain function indicates inclusion can be very stressful and can produce anxiety and post-traumatic stress in children with ASD.
References
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National Autistic Society (2006). B is for bullied. London: National Autistic Society.
Park, W. J., Schauder, K. B., Zhang, R., Bennetto, L., & Tadin, D. (2017). High internal noise and poor external noise filtering characterize perception in autism spectrum disorder. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 17584. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17676-5
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Quill, K. A. (1997). Instructional considerations for young children with autism: The rationale for visually cued instruction. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(6), 697-714. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025806900162
Zablotsky, B., Bradshaw, C. P., Anderson, C. M., & Law, P. (2014). Risk factors for bullying among children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 18(4), 419-427. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313477920
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Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., DeRosa, R., Hubbard, R., Kagan, R., Liataud, J., Mallah, K., Olafson, E., & van der Kolk, B., (2017). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric annals, 35(5), 390-398. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-05
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Duerden, E. G., Oatley, H. K., Mak-Fan, K. M., McGrath, P. A., Taylor, M. J., Szatmari, P., & Roberts, S. W. (2012). Risk factors associated with self-injurious behaviors in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 42(11), 2460-2470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1497-9
Haruvi-Lamdan, N., Horesh, D., & Golan, O. (2018). PTSD and autism spectrum disorder: Co-morbidity, gaps in research, and potential shared mechanisms. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000298
Higgins, E. S., & George, M. S. (2013). Neuroscience of clinical psychiatry: The pathophysiology of behavior and mental illness. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Humphrey, N., & Lewis, S. (2008). “Make Me Normal” the Views and Experiences of Pupils on the Autistic Spectrum in Mainstream Secondary Schools. Autism, 12(1), 23-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361307085267
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997. 612(a) (5).
Individuals with Disability Education Act. (2017, May 3). Sec. 300.530 (f). Retrieved March 16, 2020, from https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/e/300.530/f
Kellerman, G. R., Fan, J., & Gorman, J. M. (2005). Auditory abnormalities in autism: Toward functional distinctions among findings. CNS Spectrums. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852900019738
Leekam, S. R., Nieto, C., Libby, S. J., Wing, L., & Gould, J. (2007). Describing the sensory abnormalities of children and adults with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0218-7
Lord, C., Risi, S., & Pickles, A. (2004). Trajectory of language development in autistic spectrum disorders. In Developmental language disorders (pp. 18-41). Psychology Press.
Maiano, C., Normand, C. L., Salvas, M. C., Moullec, G., & Aimé, A. (2016). Prevalence of school bullying among youth with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Autism research, 9(6), 601-615. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1568
Markram, K., & Markram, H. (2010). The intense world theory–a unifying theory of the neurobiology of autism. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 224. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00224
Martineau, J., Andersson, F., Barthélémy, C., Cottier, J. P., & Destrieux, C. (2010). Atypical activation of the mirror neuron system during perception of hand motion in autism. Brain research, 1320, 168-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.01.035
Maurice, C. E., Green, G. E., & Luce, S. C. (1996). Behavioral intervention for young children with autism: A manual for parents and professionals. Pro-ed.
Mayes, S. D., Gorman, A. A., Hillwig-Garcia, J., & Syed, E. (2013). Suicide ideation and attempts in children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(1), 109-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2012.07.009
Minshawi, N. F., Hurwitz, S., Fodstad, J. C., Biebl, S., Morriss, D. H., & McDougle, C. J. (2014). The association between self-injurious behaviors and autism spectrum disorders. Psychology research and behavior management, 7, 125. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S44635
Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2017). Psychology in everyday life. New York: Worth, Macmillan Learning.
National Autistic Society (2006). B is for bullied. London: National Autistic Society.
Park, W. J., Schauder, K. B., Zhang, R., Bennetto, L., & Tadin, D. (2017). High internal noise and poor external noise filtering characterize perception in autism spectrum disorder. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 17584. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17676-5
Pelphrey, K. A., Sasson, N. J., Reznick, J. S., Paul, G., Goldman, B. D., & Piven, J. (2002). Visual scanning of faces in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(4), 249-261. https://doi.org/0162-3257/02/0800-0249/0
Perry, B. D., Pollard, R. A., Blakley, T. L., Baker, W. L., & Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation, and “use‐dependent” development of the brain: How “states” become “traits”. Infant Mental Health Journal, 16(4), 271-291. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0355(199524)16:4<271::AID-IMHJ2280160404>3.0.CO;2-B
Rattaz, C., Michelon, C., & Baghdadli, A. (2015). Symptom severity as a risk factor for self‐injurious behaviours in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59(8), 730-741. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12177
Richards, C., Oliver, C., Nelson, L., & Moss, J. (2012). Self‐injurious behaviour in individuals with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 56(5), 476-489. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01537.x
Richer, J. M., & Coss, R. G. (1976). Gaze aversion in autistic and normal children. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 53(3), 193-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1976.tb00074.x
Riquelme, I., Hatem, S. M., & Montoya, P. (2016). Abnormal Pressure Pain, Touch Sensitivity, Proprioception, and Manual Dexterity in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Neural Plasticity. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/1723401
Rutherford, M. D., & Towns, A. M. (2008). Scan path differences and similarities during emotion perception in those with and without autism spectrum disorders. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 38(7), 1371-1381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0525-7
Senju, A., & Johnson, M. H. (2009). The eye contact effect: mechanisms and development. Trends in cognitive sciences, 13(3), 127-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.009
Sigman, M., & McGovern, C. W. (2005). Improvement in cognitive and language skills from preschool to adolescence in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(1), 15-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-004-1027-5
Soke, G. N., Rosenberg, S. A., Hamman, R. F., Fingerlin, T., Robinson, C., Carpenter, L., Giarello, E., Lee, L., Wiggins, L. D., Durkin, M. S., & DiGuiseppi, C. (2016). Brief report: prevalence of self-injurious behaviors among children with autism spectrum disorder—a population-based study. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 46(11), 3607-3614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2879-1
Streeck-Fischer, A., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2000). Down will come baby, cradle and all: Diagnostic and therapeutic implications of chronic trauma on child development. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34(6), 903-918. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2000.00827.x
Symes, W., & Humphrey, N. (2010). Peer-group indicators of social inclusion among pupils with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) in mainstream secondary schools: A comparative study. School Psychology International, 31(5), 478-494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034310382496
Tomchek, S. D., & Dunn, W. (2007). Sensory processing in children with and without autism: A comparative study using the short sensory profile. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61(2), 190-200. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.61.2.190
Tomchek, S. D., Huebner, R. A., & Dunn, W. (2014). Patterns of sensory processing in children with an autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.006
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). The Condition of Education 2005 (NCES 2005–094). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Quill, K. A. (1997). Instructional considerations for young children with autism: The rationale for visually cued instruction. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(6), 697-714. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025806900162
Zablotsky, B., Bradshaw, C. P., Anderson, C. M., & Law, P. (2014). Risk factors for bullying among children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 18(4), 419-427. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313477920
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