Employment Dynamics and Economic Performance: Divergent Impacts in the EU-27 Regions
Keywords:
Unemployment, labour productivity, lifelong education, demographic factors, economic performance, EU-27 regions
Abstract
The labour market is a key driver of regional economic outcomes, with factors such as unemployment, labour productivity and workforce composition shaping prosperity. High unemployment often reflects inefficiencies in resource allocation, leading to reduced productivity and consumer spending, while investments in human capital and productivity drive innovation, competitiveness, and growth. This study analyses the impact of labour market conditions and demographics on economic performance across EU-27 regions over two decades. Using quantile regression models, the research highlights the varying effects of workforce dynamics across regions at different stages of development. The findings reveal that unemployment disproportionately impacts low- and middle-income regions, while investments in lifelong learning yield significant returns in less developed regions. Labour productivity is a key driver, with employment in science and technology sectors particularly influential in wealthier regions. Additionally, demographic factors such as population density and changes in population size play significant roles in shaping economic outcomes. The study highlights the need for region-specific policies that address disparities, promote education and innovation in less developed areas, and balance wage growth with productivity in wealthier regions to foster sustainable growth and EU-wide convergence.
References
Acemoglu, D. (2002). Directed Technical Change. The Review of Economic Studies, 69(4), 781-809. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-937X.00226
Acemoglu, D., & Dell, M. (2010). Productivity Differences between and within Countries. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 2(1), 169-188. https://doi.org/10.1257/mac.2.1.169
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity and poverty. New York: Crown Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1355/ae29-2j
Aghion, P., David, P. A., & Foray, D. (2009). Science, technology and innovation for economic growth: Linking policy research and practice in ‘STIG Systems’. Research Policy, 38(4), 681-693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2009.01.016
Andersson, M., Morgan, J., & Baccianti, C. (2020). Climate change and the macro economy. ECB Occasional Paper, 2020243. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3632832
Andrei, D. B., Vasile, D., & Adrian, E. (2009). The correlation between unemployment and real GDP growth. A study case on Romania. Annals of Faculty of Economics, 2(1), 317-322.
Arifi, D., Xhixha, H., & Aliu, F. (2023). Testing Okun’s Law: Evidence From the Western Balkan Countries. 13(4), 21582440231208332. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231208332
Autor, D. H., Katz, L. F., & Kearney, M. S. (2008). Trends in U.S. Wage Inequality: Revising the Revisionists. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(2), 300-323. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.90.2.300
Ayala, L., Cantó, O., & Rodríguez, J. G. (2017). Poverty and the business cycle: A regional panel data analysis for Spain using alternative measures of unemployment. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 15(1), 47-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-016-9343-5
Bartolucci, F., Choudhry, M. T., Marelli, E., & Signorelli, M. (2018). GDP dynamics and unemployment changes in developed and developing countries. Applied Economics, 50(31), 3338-3356. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2017.1420894
Bayarçelik, E. B., & Taşel, F. (2012). Research and Development: Source of Economic Growth. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 58, 744-753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.1052
Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., & Fink, G. (2010). Implications of population ageing for economic growth. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 26(4), 583-612. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grq038
Bloom, N. (2009). The Impact of Uncertainty Shocks. Econometrica, 77(3), 623-685. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA6248
Blundell, R., Dearden, L., Meghir, C., & Sianesi, B. (1999). Human Capital Investment: The Returns from Education and Training to the Individual, the Firm and the Economy. 20(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1999.tb00001.x
Brida, J. G., Alvarez, E., Cayssials, G., & Mednik, M. (2024). How does population growth affect economic growth and vice versa? An empirical analysis. Review of Economics and Political Science, 9(3), 265-297. https://doi.org/10.1108/REPS-11-2022-0093
Camagni, R., & Capello, R. (2017). Regional Innovation Patterns and the EU Regional Policy Reform: Towards Smart Innovation Policies. In R. Capello (Ed.), Seminal Studies in Regional and Urban Economics: Contributions from an Impressive Mind (pp. 313-343). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57807-1_16
Chiang, Y. H., Tao, L., & Wong, F. K. W. (2015). Causal relationship between construction activities, employment and GDP: The case of Hong Kong. Habitat International, 46, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.10.016
Coccia, M. (2019). Why do nations produce science advances and new technology? Technology in Society, 59, 101124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.03.007
Collewet, M., & Sauermann, J. (2017). Working hours and productivity. Labour Economics, 47, 96-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2017.03.006
Crescenzi, R., de Blasio, G., & Giua, M. (2020). Cohesion Policy incentives for collaborative industrial research: evaluation of a Smart Specialisation forerunner programme. Regional Studies, 54(10), 1341-1353. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2018.1502422
Crescenzi, R., Fratesi, U., & Monastiriotis, V. (2017). The Eu Cohesion Policy and the Factors Conditioning Success and Failure: Evidence from 15 Regions. Regions Magazine, 305(1), 4-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13673882.2017.11868994
Cruz, M., & Ahmed, S. A. (2018). On the impact of demographic change on economic growth and poverty. World Development, 105, 95-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.12.018
Cutler, D., & Lleras-Muney, A. (2006). Education and Health: Evaluating Theories and Evidence. Working Paper, No. 12352. https://doi.org/10.3386/w12352
Dimova, R., & Nordman, C. J. (2014). Understanding the Links between Labour and Economic Development. The European Journal of Development Research, 26(4), 387-396. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2014.50
Duranton, G., & Puga, D. (2020). The Economics of Urban Density. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(3), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.34.3.3
European Commision. (2024). ARDECO Explorer. 2024.05 (Spring 2024 forecast). Retrieved from https://urban.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ardeco/explorer?lng=en
Eurostat. (2023). Regional statistics by NUTS classification. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/regions/data/database
Ganong, P., & Noel, P. (2019). Consumer Spending during Unemployment: Positive and Normative Implications. American Economic Review, 109(7), 2383-2424. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20170537
Gumus, E., & Celikay, F. (2015). R&D Expenditure and Economic Growth: New Empirical Evidence. 9(3), 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973801015579753
Hajkova, D., Hurník, J. J. C. J. o. E., & Finance. (2007). Cobb-Douglas production function: the case of a converging economy. Czech Journal of Economics and Finance, 57(9-10), 465-476.
Harper, S. (2010). The capacity of social security and health care institutions to adapt to an ageing world. International Social Security Review, 63(3-4), 177-196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-246X.2010.01374.x
Heimberger, P., Kapeller, J., & Schütz, B. (2017). The NAIRU determinants: What’s structural about unemployment in Europe? Journal of Policy Modeling, 39(5), 883-908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2017.04.003
Hjazeen, H., Seraj, M., & Ozdeser, H. (2021). The nexus between the economic growth and unemployment in Jordan. Future Business Journal, 7(1), 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-021-00088-3
Idrees, A. S., & Siddiqi, M. W. (2013). Does public education expenditure cause economic growth? Comparison of developed and developing countries. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 7(1), 174-183.
Jalava, J., & Pohjola, M. (2002). Economic growth in the New Economy: evidence from advanced economies. Information Economics and Policy, 14(2), 189-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-6245(01)00066-X
Jenkins, A., Vignoles, A., Wolf, A., & Galindo-Rueda, F. (2003). The determinants and labour market effects of lifelong learning. Applied Economics, 35(16), 1711-1721. https://doi.org/10.1080/0003684032000155445
Keynes, J. M. (1936). The general theory of employment, interest and money: London : Macmillan, 1936.
Krugman, P. (1998). What's new about the new economic geography? Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 14(2), 7-17. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/14.2.7
Kumar, S., Webber, D. J., & Perry, G. (2012). Real wages, inflation and labour productivity in Australia. Applied Economics, 44(23), 2945-2954. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2011.568405
Lisenkova, K., McQuaid, R. W., & Wright, R. E. (2010). Demographic change and labour markets. Twenty-First Century Society, 5(3), 243-259. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450144.2010.480828
Liu, Y., Yang, M., & Cui, J. (2024). Urbanization, economic agglomeration and economic growth. Heliyon, 10(1), e23772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23772
Marelli, E., & Signorelli, M. (2010). Employment, productivity and models of growth in the EU. International Journal of Manpower, 31(7), 732-754. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437721011081572
Okazaki, E., Nishi, D., Susukida, R., Inoue, A., Shimazu, A., & Tsutsumi, A. (2019). Association between working hours, work engagement, and work productivity in employees: A cross-sectional study of the Japanese Study of Health, Occupation, and Psychosocial Factors Relates Equity. Journal of Occupational Health, 61(2), 182-188. https://doi.org/10.1002/1348-9585.12023
Okun, A. M. (1962). Potential GNP: its measurement and significance. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the business and economics statistics, Washington, DC.
Pencavel, J. (2014). The Productivity of Working Hours. The Economic Journal, 125(589), 2052-2076. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12166
Porter, M. (2003). The Economic Performance of Regions. Regional Studies, 37(6-7), 549-578. https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340032000108688
Rasvanis, E., & Tselios, V. (2024). Privatisations, FDI, and Greece’s regional economic recovery: an empirical study of perceptual view of investors. European Planning Studies, 32(6), 1210-1230. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2023.2285812
Reinhart, C. M., & Rogoff, K. S. (2010). Growth in a Time of Debt. American Economic Review, 100(2), 573-578. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.2.573
Rodríguez-Pose, A., & Bartalucci, F. (2023). The green transition and its potential territorial discontents. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 17(2), 339-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/cjres/rsad039
Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous Technological Change. Journal of Political Economy, 98(5, Part 2), S71-S102. https://doi.org/10.1086/261725
Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470316696
Shapiro, C., & Stiglitz, J. E. (1986). Equilibrium Unemployment as a Worker Discipline Device. In G. A. Akerlof & J. L. Yellen (Eds.), Efficiency Wage Models of the Labor Market (pp. 45-56). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511559594.004
Sundqvist, E. (2023). Demographic challenges in regional development: A study of regional political leadership in Sweden and Finland. Regional & Federal Studies, 33(3), 287-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2021.1959322
Sylwester, K. (2001). R&D and economic growth. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 13(4), 71-84. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02693991
Teixeira, A. A. C., & Queirós, A. S. S. (2016). Economic growth, human capital and structural change: A dynamic panel data analysis. Research Policy, 45(8), 1636-1648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2016.04.006
Visvizi, A., Lytras, M. D., & Daniela, L. (2018). Education, Innovation and the Prospect of Sustainable Growth and Development. In A. Visvizi, M. D. Lytras, & L. Daniela (Eds.), The Future of Innovation and Technology in Education: Policies and Practices for Teaching and Learning Excellence (pp. 297-305): Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78756-555-520181015
Waldmann, E. (2018). Quantile regression: A short story on how and why. 18(3-4), 203-218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1471082X18759142
World Bank. (2024). World Bank Open Data. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?end=2022&start=2003
Zeng, J., & Zhang, J. (2022). Education policies and development with threshold human capital externalities. Economic Modelling, 108, 105744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2021.105744
Acemoglu, D., & Dell, M. (2010). Productivity Differences between and within Countries. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 2(1), 169-188. https://doi.org/10.1257/mac.2.1.169
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity and poverty. New York: Crown Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1355/ae29-2j
Aghion, P., David, P. A., & Foray, D. (2009). Science, technology and innovation for economic growth: Linking policy research and practice in ‘STIG Systems’. Research Policy, 38(4), 681-693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2009.01.016
Andersson, M., Morgan, J., & Baccianti, C. (2020). Climate change and the macro economy. ECB Occasional Paper, 2020243. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3632832
Andrei, D. B., Vasile, D., & Adrian, E. (2009). The correlation between unemployment and real GDP growth. A study case on Romania. Annals of Faculty of Economics, 2(1), 317-322.
Arifi, D., Xhixha, H., & Aliu, F. (2023). Testing Okun’s Law: Evidence From the Western Balkan Countries. 13(4), 21582440231208332. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231208332
Autor, D. H., Katz, L. F., & Kearney, M. S. (2008). Trends in U.S. Wage Inequality: Revising the Revisionists. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(2), 300-323. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.90.2.300
Ayala, L., Cantó, O., & Rodríguez, J. G. (2017). Poverty and the business cycle: A regional panel data analysis for Spain using alternative measures of unemployment. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 15(1), 47-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-016-9343-5
Bartolucci, F., Choudhry, M. T., Marelli, E., & Signorelli, M. (2018). GDP dynamics and unemployment changes in developed and developing countries. Applied Economics, 50(31), 3338-3356. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2017.1420894
Bayarçelik, E. B., & Taşel, F. (2012). Research and Development: Source of Economic Growth. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 58, 744-753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.1052
Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., & Fink, G. (2010). Implications of population ageing for economic growth. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 26(4), 583-612. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grq038
Bloom, N. (2009). The Impact of Uncertainty Shocks. Econometrica, 77(3), 623-685. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA6248
Blundell, R., Dearden, L., Meghir, C., & Sianesi, B. (1999). Human Capital Investment: The Returns from Education and Training to the Individual, the Firm and the Economy. 20(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1999.tb00001.x
Brida, J. G., Alvarez, E., Cayssials, G., & Mednik, M. (2024). How does population growth affect economic growth and vice versa? An empirical analysis. Review of Economics and Political Science, 9(3), 265-297. https://doi.org/10.1108/REPS-11-2022-0093
Camagni, R., & Capello, R. (2017). Regional Innovation Patterns and the EU Regional Policy Reform: Towards Smart Innovation Policies. In R. Capello (Ed.), Seminal Studies in Regional and Urban Economics: Contributions from an Impressive Mind (pp. 313-343). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57807-1_16
Chiang, Y. H., Tao, L., & Wong, F. K. W. (2015). Causal relationship between construction activities, employment and GDP: The case of Hong Kong. Habitat International, 46, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.10.016
Coccia, M. (2019). Why do nations produce science advances and new technology? Technology in Society, 59, 101124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.03.007
Collewet, M., & Sauermann, J. (2017). Working hours and productivity. Labour Economics, 47, 96-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2017.03.006
Crescenzi, R., de Blasio, G., & Giua, M. (2020). Cohesion Policy incentives for collaborative industrial research: evaluation of a Smart Specialisation forerunner programme. Regional Studies, 54(10), 1341-1353. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2018.1502422
Crescenzi, R., Fratesi, U., & Monastiriotis, V. (2017). The Eu Cohesion Policy and the Factors Conditioning Success and Failure: Evidence from 15 Regions. Regions Magazine, 305(1), 4-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13673882.2017.11868994
Cruz, M., & Ahmed, S. A. (2018). On the impact of demographic change on economic growth and poverty. World Development, 105, 95-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.12.018
Cutler, D., & Lleras-Muney, A. (2006). Education and Health: Evaluating Theories and Evidence. Working Paper, No. 12352. https://doi.org/10.3386/w12352
Dimova, R., & Nordman, C. J. (2014). Understanding the Links between Labour and Economic Development. The European Journal of Development Research, 26(4), 387-396. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2014.50
Duranton, G., & Puga, D. (2020). The Economics of Urban Density. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(3), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.34.3.3
European Commision. (2024). ARDECO Explorer. 2024.05 (Spring 2024 forecast). Retrieved from https://urban.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ardeco/explorer?lng=en
Eurostat. (2023). Regional statistics by NUTS classification. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/regions/data/database
Ganong, P., & Noel, P. (2019). Consumer Spending during Unemployment: Positive and Normative Implications. American Economic Review, 109(7), 2383-2424. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20170537
Gumus, E., & Celikay, F. (2015). R&D Expenditure and Economic Growth: New Empirical Evidence. 9(3), 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973801015579753
Hajkova, D., Hurník, J. J. C. J. o. E., & Finance. (2007). Cobb-Douglas production function: the case of a converging economy. Czech Journal of Economics and Finance, 57(9-10), 465-476.
Harper, S. (2010). The capacity of social security and health care institutions to adapt to an ageing world. International Social Security Review, 63(3-4), 177-196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-246X.2010.01374.x
Heimberger, P., Kapeller, J., & Schütz, B. (2017). The NAIRU determinants: What’s structural about unemployment in Europe? Journal of Policy Modeling, 39(5), 883-908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2017.04.003
Hjazeen, H., Seraj, M., & Ozdeser, H. (2021). The nexus between the economic growth and unemployment in Jordan. Future Business Journal, 7(1), 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-021-00088-3
Idrees, A. S., & Siddiqi, M. W. (2013). Does public education expenditure cause economic growth? Comparison of developed and developing countries. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 7(1), 174-183.
Jalava, J., & Pohjola, M. (2002). Economic growth in the New Economy: evidence from advanced economies. Information Economics and Policy, 14(2), 189-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-6245(01)00066-X
Jenkins, A., Vignoles, A., Wolf, A., & Galindo-Rueda, F. (2003). The determinants and labour market effects of lifelong learning. Applied Economics, 35(16), 1711-1721. https://doi.org/10.1080/0003684032000155445
Keynes, J. M. (1936). The general theory of employment, interest and money: London : Macmillan, 1936.
Krugman, P. (1998). What's new about the new economic geography? Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 14(2), 7-17. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/14.2.7
Kumar, S., Webber, D. J., & Perry, G. (2012). Real wages, inflation and labour productivity in Australia. Applied Economics, 44(23), 2945-2954. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2011.568405
Lisenkova, K., McQuaid, R. W., & Wright, R. E. (2010). Demographic change and labour markets. Twenty-First Century Society, 5(3), 243-259. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450144.2010.480828
Liu, Y., Yang, M., & Cui, J. (2024). Urbanization, economic agglomeration and economic growth. Heliyon, 10(1), e23772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23772
Marelli, E., & Signorelli, M. (2010). Employment, productivity and models of growth in the EU. International Journal of Manpower, 31(7), 732-754. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437721011081572
Okazaki, E., Nishi, D., Susukida, R., Inoue, A., Shimazu, A., & Tsutsumi, A. (2019). Association between working hours, work engagement, and work productivity in employees: A cross-sectional study of the Japanese Study of Health, Occupation, and Psychosocial Factors Relates Equity. Journal of Occupational Health, 61(2), 182-188. https://doi.org/10.1002/1348-9585.12023
Okun, A. M. (1962). Potential GNP: its measurement and significance. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the business and economics statistics, Washington, DC.
Pencavel, J. (2014). The Productivity of Working Hours. The Economic Journal, 125(589), 2052-2076. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12166
Porter, M. (2003). The Economic Performance of Regions. Regional Studies, 37(6-7), 549-578. https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340032000108688
Rasvanis, E., & Tselios, V. (2024). Privatisations, FDI, and Greece’s regional economic recovery: an empirical study of perceptual view of investors. European Planning Studies, 32(6), 1210-1230. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2023.2285812
Reinhart, C. M., & Rogoff, K. S. (2010). Growth in a Time of Debt. American Economic Review, 100(2), 573-578. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.2.573
Rodríguez-Pose, A., & Bartalucci, F. (2023). The green transition and its potential territorial discontents. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 17(2), 339-358. https://doi.org/10.1093/cjres/rsad039
Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous Technological Change. Journal of Political Economy, 98(5, Part 2), S71-S102. https://doi.org/10.1086/261725
Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470316696
Shapiro, C., & Stiglitz, J. E. (1986). Equilibrium Unemployment as a Worker Discipline Device. In G. A. Akerlof & J. L. Yellen (Eds.), Efficiency Wage Models of the Labor Market (pp. 45-56). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511559594.004
Sundqvist, E. (2023). Demographic challenges in regional development: A study of regional political leadership in Sweden and Finland. Regional & Federal Studies, 33(3), 287-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2021.1959322
Sylwester, K. (2001). R&D and economic growth. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 13(4), 71-84. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02693991
Teixeira, A. A. C., & Queirós, A. S. S. (2016). Economic growth, human capital and structural change: A dynamic panel data analysis. Research Policy, 45(8), 1636-1648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2016.04.006
Visvizi, A., Lytras, M. D., & Daniela, L. (2018). Education, Innovation and the Prospect of Sustainable Growth and Development. In A. Visvizi, M. D. Lytras, & L. Daniela (Eds.), The Future of Innovation and Technology in Education: Policies and Practices for Teaching and Learning Excellence (pp. 297-305): Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78756-555-520181015
Waldmann, E. (2018). Quantile regression: A short story on how and why. 18(3-4), 203-218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1471082X18759142
World Bank. (2024). World Bank Open Data. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?end=2022&start=2003
Zeng, J., & Zhang, J. (2022). Education policies and development with threshold human capital externalities. Economic Modelling, 108, 105744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2021.105744
Published
2024-12-20
Issue
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
